Group Dynamics, Chapter 1 PDF

GROUP DYNAMICS profoundly influence the behavior, feelings, and judgments of their members, for members CHAPTER ONE spend much of their ti...

GROUP DYNAMICS profoundly influence the behavior, feelings, and judgments of their members, for members CHAPTER ONE spend much of their time interacting with one another, usually in face-to-face settings with CHAPTER OUTLINE many of the other members present 1-1 WHAT ARE GROUPS In many cases, individuals become part of primary groups involuntarily 1-1a Defining Groups protect members from harm, care for them 1-1b Varieties of Groups when they are ill, and provide them with shelter 1-1c Characteristics of Groups and sustenance, but as Cooley explained, they 1-2 WHAT ARE GROUP DYNAMICS? also create the connection between the 1-2A Dynamic Group Processes individual and society at large 1-2b Process and Progress over Time 1-3 WHY STUDY GROUPS? SOCIAL (SECONDARY) GROUP 1-3a Understanding People 1-3b Understanding the Social World A relatively small number of individuals who 1-3c Applications to Practical problems interact with one another over an extended period of time, such as work groups, clubs, and 1-1 WHAT ARE GROUPS? congregations. 1-1a DEFINING GROUPS COLLECTIVES A collection of human being A relatively large aggregation or group of Two or more individuals who are connected by individuals who display similarities in actions and w/in social relationships and outlook. A street crowd, a line of people (a queue), and a panicked group escaping a fire TWO OR MORE INDIVIDUALS are examples of collectives, as are more widely dispersed groups (e.g., listeners who respond Groups come in a staggering assortment of similarly to a public service announcement). shapes and sizes, from dyads (two members) and triads (three members) to huge crowds. drawn together by something— an event, an activity, or even danger—but then the group WHO ARE CONNECTED dissolves when the experience ends. Commonality shared by groups is an emphasis CATEGORIES on social relations that link members to one another. A perceptual grouping of people who are assumed to be similar to one another in some BY AND WITHIN SOCIAL RELATIONS ways but different in one or more ways, such as all women, the elderly, college students, or The relations that link the members of groups all the citizens of a specific country. are not of one type. In families, for example, share a common identity with one another. the relationships are based on kinship, but in They know who is in their category, who is not, the workplace, they are based on task-related and what qualities are typical of insiders and interdependencies. outsiders. Can influence the perceptions of people who What is a group? are not part of the category. When perceivers decide a person, they encounter is one of Categorization “those people,” they will likely rely on any Communication stereotypes they have about the members of Influence that social category to formulate an impression Interdependence of the person. Interrelations tend to create divisions between people, and Psychological significance those divisions can result in a sense of we and Relations us versus they and them. Shared identity Shared tasks and goals SOCIAL IDENTITY - An individual’s sense of self derived Size from relationships and memberships in groups; also, Social unit those aspects of the self that are assumed to be Structure common to most or all of the members of the same Systems group or social category. 1-1b VARIETIES OF GROUPS SOCIAL CAPITAL - The degree to which individuals, groups, or larger aggregates of people are linked in PRIMARY GROUPS social relationships that yield positive, productive benefits; analogous to economic capital (fiscal A small, long-term group characterized by prosperity), but determined by extensiveness of social frequent interaction, solidarity, and high connectedness. levels of inter- dependence among members STEREOTYPE - A socially shared set of qualities, that substantially influences the attitudes, characteristics, and behavioral expectations ascribed to a particular group or category of people. values, and social outcomes of its members. 1-1c CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS COMPOSITION: WHO BELONGS TO THE GROUP? Each person who belongs to a group defines, in part, the nature of the group. the qualities of the individuals who are members of the group Groups may be more than the sum of their parts but each part defines the INTERACTION: WHAT DO MEMBERS DO? whole (Moreland, 2013)’ Each group differs depending on its Bales' (1950) Interaction Process composition of members Analysis (IPA) system distinguishes between task interaction and BOUNDARIES: WHO DOES NOT BELONG? relationship interaction. two types: those that focused on the Groups' boundaries define who is a task the group was dealing with and member and who is not, although open those that sustained, strengthened, or groups and social networks are more weakened interpersonal relationships permeable than closed groups. within the group A group is boundaried in a psychological sense; those who are TASK INTERACTION includes all group behavior that is included in the group are recognized as focused principally on the group’s work, projects, members and those who are not part plans, and goals. In most groups, members must of the group are excluded outsiders. coordinate their various skills, resources, and A group’s boundary may also be motivations so that the group can make a decision, relatively permeable. In OPEN generate a product, or achieve a victory. GROUPS, for example, membership is TASK INTERACTION The conjointly adjusted actions of fluid; members may voluntarily come and go as they please with no group members that pertain to the group’s projects, consequences, or the group may tasks, and goals. frequently vote members out of the RELATIONSHIP INTERACTION (socioemotional group or invite new ones to join. In CLOSED GROUPS, in contrast, the interaction) The conjointly adjusted actions of group membership roster changes more members that relate to or influence the nature and slowly, if at all. strength of the emotional and interpersonal bonds within the group, including both sustaining (social support, consideration) and undermining actions SOCIAL NETWORKS - Their members are linked to each (criticism, conflict). other by social relationships. Networks, however, lack clear boundaries that define who is in the network and Why Do Humans Have Such Big Brains? who is not. To become part of a social network, an individual need only establish a relationship of some species with bigger brains did tend to sort with a person who is already part of the network. live in larger social groups. social network A set of interpersonally interconnected individuals or groups. INTERDEPENDENCE: DO THE MEMBERS DEPEND ON EACH OTHER? SIZE: HOW LARGE IS THE GROUP? Groups create various types of dependencies among members (e.g., The number of possible relations in a unilateral, reciprocal). group increases exponentially as Mutual dependence, as when one’s groups increase in size. outcomes, actions, thoughts, A group’s size influences many of its feelings, and experiences are other features, for a small group will influenced, to some degree, by other likely have different structures, people. processes, and patterns of interaction than a larger one. determines how many social ties— links, relationships, connections, edges—are needed to join members to each other and to the group.  CIRCUMSTANTIAL GROUPS - are emergent, unplanned groups that arise when external, situational forces set the *stage for people to join together, often STRUCTURE: HOW IS THE GROUP ORGANIZED? temporarily, in a unified group. Group interaction is patterned by group structure, including roles, norms, and interpersonal relations. A group of travelers stranded together when their bus breaks, a mob breaking GROUP STRUCTURE - The organization of a group, shop windows and setting parked cars on including the members, their interrelations, and their fire. interactions. SELF-ORGANIZING GROUPS- emerge ROLE - A socially shared set of behaviors, when interacting individuals gradually characteristics, and responsibilities expected of people align their activities in a cooperative who occupy a particular position or type of position system of interdependence. (Parties, within a group; by enacting roles, individuals establish gatherings of surfers waiting for waves regular patterns of exchange with one another that just offshore.) increase predictability and social coordination. UNITY: HOW COHESIVE IS THE GROUP? NORM - A consensual and often implicit standard Group cohesion, or cohesiveness, is the that describes what behaviors should and should not be unity of a group. performed in a given context. hold on to their members tightly, and members usually value their GOALS: WHAT IS THE GROUP’S PURPOSE? membership, and are quick to identify Groups seek a variety of goals, such as themselves as members. those specified by McGrath (1984): group’s cohesiveness, however, is often generating. choosing, negotiating, and based on commitment to the group’s executing. purposes, rather than on social bonds The goals groups pursue are many and between members. varied. GROUP COHESION -The solidarity or GENERATING: Groups concoct the strategies they unity of a group resulting from the will use to accomplish their goals (Type 1: development of strong and mutual planning tasks) or create altogether new ideas interpersonal bonds among members and and approaches to their problems (Type 2: group-level forces that unify the group, creativity tasks) such as shared commitment to group CHOOSING: Groups make decisions about issues goals and esprit de corps. that have correct solutions (Type 3: intellective tasks) or questions that can be answered in many ENTITATIVITY: DOES THE GROUP LOOK LIKE A ways (Type 4: decision-making tasks) NEGOTIATING: Groups resolve differences of GROUP? The perception of entitativity opinion among members regarding their goals or decisions (Type 5: cognitive conflict tasks) or (groupness), according to Campbell settle competitive disputes among members (1958a), is substantially influenced by (Type 6: mixed-motive tasks) common fate, similarity, and proximity EXECUTING: Groups do things, including taking cues within an aggregation. part in competitions (Type 7: contests/battles/ The apparent cohesiveness or unity of an competitive tasks) or creating some product or assemblage of individuals; the quality of carrying out collective actions (Type 8: being a single entity rather than a set of performances/psychomotor tasks) independent, unrelated individuals (coined in Campbell, 1958a). Proximity is also a signal of entitativity ORIGIN: FOUNDED OR FORMED? (PAGE 14) The PLANNED GROUPS (concocted and 1-2 WHAT ARE GROUP DYNAMICS founded/ ex. musical group, military units) are deliberately formed, but THOMAS THEOREM - The theoretical premise, put EMERGENT GROUPS (circumstantial forward by W. I. Thomas, which maintains that and self-organizing/ ex. audiences at people’s conception of a social situation, even if events, bystanders at a crime scene) incorrect, will determine their reactions in the come into existence gradually over time. situation; “If men define situations as real, they are CONCOCTED GROUPS - planned by real in their consequences” (Thomas & Thomas, 1928, individuals or authorities outside of the p. 572). group. A flight crew of an airplane, and ESSENTIALISM - The belief that all things, including a military squad would all be concocted individuals and groups, have a basic nature that makes groups, since those who created them them what they are and distinguishes them from other are not actually members of the group. things; a thing’s essence is usually inferred rather than FOUNDED GROUPS - planned by one or directly observed and is generally assumed to be more individuals who remain within the relatively unchanging. group. (A small Internet start-up company, a study group, an expeditionary team, or grassroots 1-2a DYNAMIC GROUP PROCESSES community action group.) The word dynamic comes from the Greek DYNAMIKÓS, DECISION MAKING. the processes that guide which means to be strong, powerful, and energetic. groups’ choices and decisions are examined CONFLICT PROCESSES CONFLICT, explains, the most common sources are competition, disagreements over the GROUP DYNAMICS distribution of resources, power struggles, are the influential interpersonal processes uncertainty and disagreement over a decision, that occur in and between groups over time and personal antipathies. Interpersonal processes that occur within INTERGROUP RELATIONS, can be harmonious and between groups; also, the scientific and cooperative, but in many cases they are study of those processes. rife with tension and conflict. FORMATIVE PROCESSES - such as the need to belong to CONTEXTUAL PROCESSES and affiliate in groups, contextual factors that promote the formation of groups, and the development GROUPS IN CONTEXT, considers how the of group cohesion. physical environment affects a group’s dynamics INCLUSION AND IDENTITY - groups satisfy a GROWTH AND CHANGE, reviews the use of very basic human need—the need to belong— groups to promote adjustment, human and the consequences of shifting from an development, and therapeutic change, individualistic, self-focused orientation to a including helping, supportive, and change- group-level perspective. promoting groups. FORMATION - personal and situational forces COLLECTIVES, concludes this analysis by that prompt people to join groups or remain examining processes that influence people apart from them, as well as the part when they are part of larger, more diffuse, but interpersonal attraction plays in creating stable nonetheless very influential groups, such as mobs, crowds, and social movements. relationships among group members. COHESION AND DEVELOPMENT - reviews theory and research examining one of the most central concepts in the field of group dynamics, ORIENTATION (FORMING) - Exchange of background cohesion, the many factors that increase the unity of a group, and the way those factors wax personal information, uncertainty, tentative communication and wane as the group changes over time. CONFLICT (STORMING) - Dissatisfaction, disagreement, INFLUENCE PROCESSES challenges to leader and procedures, cliques form including aspects of group structure STRUCTURE (NORMING) - Cohesiveness, agreement on (norms, roles, relationships), conformity procedures, standards, and roles, improved and dissent, social power, obedience to communication group authority, and leadership. STRUCTURAL PROCESSES organize the PERFORMANCE (PERFORMING) - Focus on the work of group’s procedures, interaction patterns, the group, task completion, decision making, and intermember relations. cooperation INFLUENCE, looks at the way group DISSOLUTION (ADJOURNING) - Departures, withdrawal, members sometimes change their opinions, judgments, or actions so that they match decreased dependence, regret the opinions, judgments, or actions of the KURT LEWIN (1951), recognized by many as the rest of the group (conformity). founder of the field, chose the word dynamic. Groups POWER, extends this topic by considering tend to be powerful rather than weak, active rather how group members make use of social than passive, and fluid rather than static. Lewin also power to influence others and how people used the term group dynamics to describe the scientific respond to such influence. discipline devoted to the study of these dynamics. LEADERSHIP, examines the processes that FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR (FAE) occurs determine who emerge as a group’s leader because perceivers are more likely to attribute a and their effectiveness when in that person’s actions to personal, individual qualities rather position. than external, situational forces—including groups (Ross, 1977). The tendency to overestimate the causal PERFORMANCE PROCESSES influence of dispositional factors while underemphasizing the causal influence of situational PERFORMANCE, examines the processes that factors. facilitate and inhibit people’s performance in Groups are now the makers, the builders, and groups and concludes that groups outperform producers of nearly everything the world needs and individuals when interpersonal processes boost consumes. members’ motivation. TEAMS, continues the analysis of group performance by examining the unique features of groups whose members are highly  WUNDT (1916), a psychologist who wrote Völkerpsychologie. DURKHEIM (1897), a sociologist who argued that society is made possible by the collective CHAPTER 2: representations of individuals. ALLPORT (1924), a psychologist who avoided STUDYING GROUPS holistic approaches to groups. GROUP FALLACY Explaining social phenomena in terms of the group as a whole instead of basing the explanation on the individual-level processes within the GROUP DYNAMICS—the scientific field devoted to the group; ascribing psychological qualities, such as will, study of groups and their dynamics—was not established by a single theorist or researcher who laid down a set intentionality, and mind, to a group rather than to the of clear-cut assumptions and principles. Rather, group individuals within the group. dynamics resulted from group processes. GROUP MIND (OR COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS) A These group processes shaped the field’s PARADIGM. hypothetical unifying mental force linking group The philosopher of science, THOMAS S. KUHN members together; the fusion of individual (1970), used that term to describe scientists’ shared consciousness or mind into a transcendent assumptions about the phenomena they study; also, a consciousness. set of research procedures. SOCIOLOGISTS discovered groups influence a society’s LEWIN’S (1951) FIELD THEORY ASSUMES GROUPS religious, political, economic, and educational social ARE OFTEN GREATER THAN THE SUM OF THEIR systems. PARTS. Lewin’s law of interactionism assumes that group ANTHROPOLOGISTS’ investigations of the world’s processes are a function of both the person and the cultures noted similarities and differences across environment: among the world’s small-scale societies. B = F(P, E). The law of interactionism that states POLITICAL SCIENTISTS’ studies of voting, public each person’s behavioral, cognitive, and engagement, and political parties led them to the study emotional reactions (“behavior”), B, are a of small groups of closely networked individuals function of his or her personal qualities, P, the social environment, E, and the interaction of GUSTAVE LE BON (1895), in his book the Psychology these personal qualities with factors present in of Crowds (Psychologie des Foules), concluded the social environment (proposed in Lewin, 1951). individuals are transformed when they join a group. And the preeminent psychologist of that period, MULTILEVEL PERSPECTIVE The view that recognizes WILHELM WUNDT (1916), published his book that a complete explanation of group processes and Völkerpsychologie; sometimes translated as “folk phenomena requires multiple levels of analysis, psychology,” but another translation is “group including individual (micro) - qualities, characteristics, psychology.” and actions of the individual members, group (meso) - group-level qualities of the groups themselves, such as their cohesiveness, their size, their composition, and their structure., and organizational or societal (macro) LEVEL OF ANALYSIS - The focus of study when level - the qualities and processes of the larger examining a multilevel process or phenomenon, such as collectives that enfold. the groups, such as the individual-level or the group-level of analysis. communities, organizations, or societies group-level analysis - for they recognized that Hackman’s (2003) studies of orchestras illustrate the humans are the constitutive elements of groups importance of examining micro-, meso-, and macro- and that groups and their processes have a level factors when investigating group dynamics. profound impact on their members individual-level analysis that focused on the person in the group. OBSERVATION involves watching and recording events Sociologist ÉMILE DURKHEIM (1897/1966), widely transpiring in groups. Varieties include overt shared beliefs—what he called collective observation, covert observation, and participant representations—are the cornerstone of society. observation, which Whyte (1943) used in his study of corner gangs. THE FIELD’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND Covert observation reduces the biasing influences PROCEDURES, TERMED A PARADIGM BY KUHN (1970), WERE SHAPED BY SUCH EARLY of the Hawthorne effect. RESEARCHERS AS: The study of online groups, such as that conducted by Bainbridge (2007), suggests such LE BON (1895), a social theorist best known for his groups display dynamics that are similar to those book on the psychology of crowds and mobs, of offline groups. Psychologie des Foules. OVERT OBSERVATION Openly watching and recording information with no attempt to conceal one’s research purposes. COVERT OBSERVATION Watching and recording - SOCIOMETRY A method for measuring the information on the activities of individuals and groups relationships among members of a group and without their knowledge. summarizing those relationships graphically (developed by Jacob Moreno). PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION Watching and recording group activities as a member of the group or SOCIOGRAM A graphic representation of the patterns of participant in the social process. intermember relations created through sociometry. In most cases, each member of the group is depicted by a ONLINE GROUP (OR E-GROUP) Two or more individuals symbol, such as a lettered circle or square, and who interact with each other solely or primarily relations among members (e.g., communication links through computer-based information technologies and friendship pairings) are indicated by lines from one (e.g., email, instant messaging, and social networking member to another. sites) rather than through face-to-face interactions. SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS (SNA) A set of procedures HAWTHORNE EFFECT A change in behavior that occurs for studying the relational structure of groups and when individuals know they are being observed or networks mathematically and graphically. Using studied. information about the relationships (ties, edges) linking members (nodes, vertexes), the method yields QUALITATIVE STUDY A research procedure that member-level indexes (e.g., centrality and collects and analyzes nonnumeric, unquantified types betweenness), group-level indexes (e.g., density and of data, such as verbal descriptions, text, images, or cohesiveness), and a graphic representation of the unit. objects. STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONAL METHODS Research procedures that create a systematic record of group interaction and activities by classifying (coding) each overt expression or action into a defined category. QUANTITATIVE STUDY A research procedure that collects and analyzes numeric data, such as frequencies, proportions, or amounts. INTERACTION PROCESS ANALYSIS (IPA) A structured coding system used to measure group activity by Self-reports may also not be accurate indicators of classifying each observed behavior into one of 12 group-level processes, such as cohesiveness or conflict, categories, such as “shows solidarity” or “asks for or psychological and physiological processes that orientation” (developed by Robert F. Bales). people are either not aware of or not able to accurately assess A. SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL AREA: POSITIVE REACTIONS B. TASK AREA: ATTEMPTED ANSWERS CASE STUDY A research technique that draws on C. TASK AREA: QUESTIONS multiple sources of information to examine, in depth, D. SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL AREA: NEGATIVE REACTIONS the activities and dynamics of a group or groups Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups GROUPTHINK A set of negative group-level processes, (SYMLOG). including illusions of vulnerability, self-censorship, and SYMLOG is a theoretical and structured coding system pressures to conform, that occur when highly cohesive for recording the activities of a group and the overall groups seek concurrence rather than objective analysis behavioral orientation of members (developed by when making a decision (identified by Irving Janis). ROBERT F. BALES). BONA FIDE GROUPS Naturally occurring groups, such as RELIABILITY - The degree to which a measurement audiences, boards of directors, clubs, or teams, technique consistently yields the same conclusion at compared to ad hoc groups created for research different times. For measurement techniques with two purposes. or more components, reliability is also the degree to REFERENCE GROUP A group or collective that which these components yield similar conclusions. individuals use as a standard or frame of reference INTERRATER RELIABILITY - The degree to which two or when selecting and appraising their abilities, attitudes, more raters agree. or beliefs; includes groups that individuals identify with and admire and categories of noninteracting individuals. CORRELATION COEFFICIENT A standardized statistic that measures the strength and direction of a VALIDITY - The degree to which a measurement relationship between two variables. Often symbolized method assesses what it was designed to measure. by r, correlations can range from –1 to +1. SELF-REPORT MEASURES Assessment methods, such as questionnaires, tests, or interviews, that ask respondents to describe their feelings, attitudes, or beliefs.  BEHAVIORISM A theoretical explanation of the way organisms acquire new responses to environmental CORRELATIONAL STUDY continues to be used to stimuli through conditioning (learning). describe studies that rely on measuring variables rather SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY An economic model of than manipulating them. A research design in which the investigator measures (but does not manipulate) at interpersonal relationships that assumes individuals least two variables and then uses statistical procedures seek out relationships that offer them many rewards to examine the strength and direction of the while exacting few costs. relationship between these variables. SYSTEMS THEORY A general theoretical approach that assumes that complex phenomena are the result of the constant and dynamic adjustments that occur between and among the interdependent parts of the whole. EXPERIMENT A research design in which the Applied to groups, systems theory assumes that groups investigator (1) manipulates at least one variable by are open systems that maintain dynamic equilibrium randomly assigning participants to two or more among members through a complex series of different conditions, (2) measures at least one other interrelated adjustments and processes. variable, and (3) controls the influence of other INPUT–PROCESS–OUTPUT (I–P–O) MODEL Any one of a variables on the outcome. number of general conceptual analyses of groups that INDEPENDENT VARIABLE Something that the researcher assumes raw materials (inputs) are transformed by changes in an experimental study while holding other internal system processes to generate results (output). variables constant and measuring the dependent For example, an I–P–O model of group performance variable; the causal mechanism in a cause–effect assumes that group-level processes mediate the relationship. relationship between individual, group, and situational input variables and resulting performance outcomes. DEPENDENT VARIABLE The resultant outcomes measured by the researcher; the effect variable in a cause–effect relationship. WHAT ARE THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF In an experiment, researchers examine cause– effect CASE, CORRELATIONAL, AND EXPERIMENTAL relationships by manipulating aspects of the group METHODS? situation (independent variables). The conclusions drawn from case studies can be highly subjective, but they stimulate theory Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939) studied the and provide detailed information about natural, impact of autocratic, democratic, and laissez- bona fide groups. faire leaders on groups by conducting an Groups studied in experimental settings may experiment. They manipulated the independent not display the dynamics of naturally occurring variable (leadership style), assessed several groups, but experimentation provides the dependent variables (aggressiveness, clearest test of cause-and-effect hypotheses. productivity, etc.), and limited the influence of Correlational studies provide only limited other possible causal factors by controlling the information about causality, but they yield situation and assigning groups to experimental precise estimates of the strength of the conditions at random. relationship between two variables and raise Lewin, Lippitt, and White’s study indicated that fewer questions of ethics for researchers. productivity was high in both democratic and Researchers also exercise care when selecting autocratic groups, but that the participants the level of analysis and when analyzing their were more aggressive in the autocratic groups findings so as to not attribute effects caused by group-level processes to individual-level INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB) A group, usually processes and vice versa. Researchers who located at a university or other research institution, study multilevel processes must be ever wary of that reviews research procedures to make certain that interdependence in their data. they are consistent with ethical guidelines for protecting human participants. COGNITIVE PROCESSES Mental processes that acquire, MOTIVATION Wants, needs, and other psychological organize, and integrate information including memory systems that store data and the psychological processes that energize behavior and thereby determine its form, intensity, and duration. mechanisms that process this information. SELF-REFERENCE EFFECT The tendency for people to EMOTION A subjective state of positive or negative have better memories for actions and events that they affect often accompanied by a degree of arousal or are personally connected to in some way. activation. GROUP-REFERENCE EFFECT The tendency for group HIERARCHY OF NEEDS An ordering of needs from the members to have better memories for actions and most basic and biologically necessary to the more social events that are related, in some way, to their group. and psychological needs, such as aesthetic and actualization needs (developed by Abraham Maslow).  This period of negative emotions and confusion is followed by the deliberative, reflective stage. CHAPTER 3: resignation stage: alienation, helplessness, loss of self- worth, and depression. INCLUSION AND FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE Some people, facing exclusion, fight their way back IDENTITY into the group (a fight response), or they avoid further rejection by seeking membership elsewhere (a flight response). Those who display the fight response may confront group members directly, attempt to force their way NEED TO BELONG The generalized desire to seek out into the group, insist that the group exclude someone and join with other people, which, when unsatisfied, else, or derogate those who have excluded them. causes a state of tension and want. Those who display a flight response, in contrast, LONELINESS Cognitive and affective malaise, which can attempt to withdraw physically or psychologically from include sadness, dejection, self-deprecation, and the situation. Rather than tolerate the inattention, boredom, experienced when one’s personal those who withdraw inhibit their relational tendencies, relationships are perceived to be too few or too keep to themselves, or seek acceptance by some other unsatisfying. group (Park & Hinsz, 2006). FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE A physiological and Emotional loneliness occurs when the problem is psychological response to stressful events characterized a lack of a long-term, meaningful, intimate by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system relationship with another person; this type of (increased heart rate, pupil dilation) that readies the loneliness might be triggered by divorce, a individual to counter the threat (fight) or to escape the breakup with a lover, or repeated romantic threat (flight). failures. Social loneliness, in contrast, occurs when people feel cut off from their network of friends, acquaintances, and group members. People who have moved to a new city, children who are TEND-AND-BEFRIEND RESPONSE A physiological, rejected by their peers, and new employees of psychological, and interpersonal response to stressful large companies often experience social events characterized by increased nurturing, protective loneliness, because they are no longer embedded and supportive behaviors (tending), and initiating and in a network of friends and acquaintances (Green strengthening relationships with other people et al., 2001). (befriending). CYBEROSTRACISM Excluding one or more individuals DEGREES OF SEPARATION In social network analysis, from a technologically mediated group interaction, the number of steps or relationships needed to link such as a computer-based discussion group, by reducing one person in the network to another specific person or eliminating communication with the person. in the network. EXCLUSION AND AGGRESSION The need to belong is a OSTRACISM Excluding one or more individuals from a powerful force in human behavior, so much so that group by reducing or eliminating contact with the individuals can respond violently when that need is person, usually by ignoring, shunning, or explicitly thwarted (Leary et al., 2003). Some individuals banishing them. experience sadness when excluded; they respond to The word ostracism dates to the Greeks, who voted exclusion passively. But others are angered when to punish members of the community with excluded, and these individuals are the ones who are banishment by inscribing their names on potshards more likely to engage in antisocial behavior, including called ostraca (Williams, 2007). aggression. REACTIONS TO EXCLUSION THE HERD INSTINCT When asked to describe their feelings, excluded people Over a century ago, psychologist William McDougall report feeling frustrated, anxious, nervous, and lonely, (1908) argued that humans are inexorably drawn to whereas those who are included in the group feel “the vast human herd,” which “exerts a baneful relaxed, friendly, and comfortable (Williams & Nida, attraction on those outside it” (p. 303) 2017). SOCIOMETER THEORY A conceptual analysis of self- Williams’s (2007, 2009) temporal need-threat model of evaluation processes that theorizes self-esteem ostracism, calls this initial response to ostracism the functions to psychologically monitor of one’s degree of reflexive stage. It is characterized by a flood of inclusion and exclusion in social groups (proposed by negative feelings— pain, disappointment, and distress— Mark Leary). that all serve to signal that something is wrong. INDIVIDUALISM A tradition, ideology, or personal CULTURAL DIFFERENCES The view of people as outlook that emphasizes the primacy of the individual independent, autonomous creatures may be peculiar to and his or her rights, independence, and relationships Western society’s individualistic leanings. The very idea with other individuals. of self may differ across cultures. COLLECTIVISM A tradition, ideology, or personal OPTIMAL DISTINCTIVENESS THEORY A conceptual orientation that emphasizes the primacy of the group analysis that assumes individuals strive to maintain a or community rather than each individual person. balance between three basic needs: the need to be assimilated by the group, the need to be connected to EXCHANGE RELATIONSHIP A reciprocal friends and loved ones, and the need for autonomy and interdependency that emphasizes the trading of differentiation (proposed by Marilyn Brewer). gratifying experiences and rewards among members. COMMUNAL RELATIONSHIP A reciprocal 3-3 FROM PERSONAL IDENTITY TO SOCIAL interdependency that emphasizes meeting the needs IDENTITY and interests of others rather than maximizing one’s SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY A theoretical analysis of own personal outcomes. group processes and intergroup relations that assumes NORM OF RECIPROCITY A social standard that enjoins groups influence their members’ self-concepts and self- individuals to pay back in kind what they receive from esteem, particularly when individuals categorize others. themselves as group members and identify with the GROUP CULTURE The distinct ways that members of a group. group represent their experiences, including MINIMAL INTERGROUP SITUATION A research consensually accepted knowledge, beliefs, rituals, procedure used in studies of intergroup conflict that customs, rules, language, norms, and practices. involves creating temporary groups of anonymous, ULTIMATUM GAME An experimental bargaining unrelated people (developed by Henri Tajfel and John situation in which one individual, the allocator, must Turner). propose a division of a shared resource to other members; if they reject the allocator’s proposal, no SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION The perceptual classification one receives any of the resource. of people, including the self, into categories. STEREOTYPES (OR PROTOTYPES) A socially shared set SOCIAL GOALS A collectivist orientation requires a of cognitive generalizations (e.g., beliefs and willingness to cooperate with others, and a degree of expectations) about the qualities and characteristics of optimism that these others are also committed more to the typical member of a particular group or social the common good than to their own personal outcomes. category. SELF-STEREOTYPING (OR AUTOSTEREOTYPING) Accepting socially shared generalizations about the prototypical characteristics attributed to members of EQUITY NORM A social standard that encourages one’s group as accurate descriptions of oneself. distributing rewards and resources to members in SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION Accepting the group as an proportion to their inputs. extension of the self and therefore basing one’s self- definition on the group’s qualities and characteristics. EQUALITY NORM A social standard that encourages distributing rewards and resources equally among all members. 3-3B MOTIVATION AND SOCIAL IDENTITY PERSONAL IDENTITY An individual’s perception of those aspects of his or her self-concept that derive COLLECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM Individuals’ overall from individualistic, personal qualities such as traits, assessment of that portion of their self-concept that is beliefs, and skills. based on their relationships with others and membership in social groups. SOCIAL IDENTITY (OR COLLECTIVE SELF) An individual’s perception of those aspects of his or her BASKING IN REFLECTED GLORY (BIRGING) Seeking self-concept that derive from his or her relationships direct or indirect association with prestigious or with other people, groups, and society. successful groups or individuals. INDIVIDUALISTS (OR INDEPENDENTS OR CUTTING OFF REFLECTED FAILURE (CORFING) IDIOCENTRICS) Individuals predisposed to put their own personal interests and motivations above the group’s Distancing oneself from a group that performs poorly. interests and goals. INGROUP–OUTGROUP BIAS The tendency to view the COLLECTIVISTS (OR INTERDEPENDENTS OR ingroup, its members, and its products more positively ALLOCENTRICS) Individuals predisposed to put the than other groups, their members, and their products. group’s interests and goals above their personal Ingroup favoritism is more common than the outgroup interests and motivations. rejection. SOCIAL CREATIVITY Restricting comparisons between Conscientiousness: persistence in the pursuit of the ingroup and other groups to tasks and outcomes tasks, including self-confidence, orderliness, when the ingroup is more successful than other groups meeting of obligations, achievement striving, and avoiding areas in which other groups surpass the self-regulation, and measured responding. ingroup. Neuroticism: strong emotional proclivities, including anxiety, hostility, negative affect, In social identity theory, stereotypes serve to create shyness, lack of impulse control, and reactivity identity, but they can also constrain identity. to stressors. stereotypes distort the accuracy of people’s Openness to Experience: active pursuit of perceptions of the members of other groups and intellectually and aesthetically stimulating contribute to intergroup conflict. experiences, including imagination, fantasy, STEREOTYPE THREAT The anxiety-provoking belief that appreciation of art, openness to emotions and experiences, curiosity, and cognitive flexibility. others’ perceptions and evaluations will be influenced by their negative stereotypes about one’s group that EXTRAVERSION In personality trait theories, the degree can, in some cases, interfere with one’s ability to to which an individual tends to seek out social perform up to one’s capabilities. contacts, including such related qualities as outgoing, enthusiastic, energetic, and assertive. Introverts are When people can choose the groups, they belong to or oriented primarily toward inner perceptions and identify with, they often shift their allegiances, leaving judgments of concepts and ideas, whereas extraverts groups that are lower in status or prone to failure and are oriented primarily toward social experiences. seeking membership in prestigious or successful groups (Ellemers, Spears, & Doosje, 2002). The technical term THE INTROVERTS, tend to be withdrawn, quiet, and for such a change in allegiance is INDIVIDUAL MOBILITY reclusive. (Ellemers, Spears, & Doosje, 1997). INDIVIDUAL MOBILITY Reducing one’s connection to a 4-1B ANXIETY AND ATTACHMENT group in order to minimize the threat to individual self- esteem. SHYNESS The tendency to be reserved or timid during social interactions, usually coupled with feelings of discomfort and nervousness. SOCIAL ANXIETY A feeling of apprehension and embarrassment experienced when anticipating or CHAPTER 4: actually interacting with other people. EXPERIENCE SAMPLING A research method that asks FORMATION participants to record their thoughts, emotions, or behavior at the time they are experiencing them rather than at a later time or date; in some cases, participants make their entries when they are signaled 4-1 JOINING GROUPS by researchers using electronic pagers, personal data Not everyone who joins a group is a “joiner,” and assistants (PDAs), or similar devices. people who prefer independence over association are not necessarily “loners.” SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER (OR SOCIAL PHOBIA) A persistent and pervasive pattern of overwhelming anxiety and self-consciousness experienced when 4-1A PERSONALITY TRAITS anticipating or actually interacting with other people. PERSONALITY The configuration of distinctive but ATTACHMENT STYLE One’s characteristic approach to enduring & Diener, 2001). Those on the low side of this relationships with other people; the basic styles include trait, dispositional characteristics, including traits, secure, preoccupied, fearful, and dismissing, as defined temperament, and values, that characterize an by the dimensions of anxiety and avoidance. individual’s responses across situations. FIVE-FACTOR MODEL (FFM, OR BIG FIVE THEORY) A conceptual model of the primary dimensions that 4-1C SOCIAL MOTIVATION structure individual differences in personality. The five dimensions are extraversion, agreeableness, NEED FOR AFFILIATION A motivating state of tension conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to that can be relieved by joining with other people, experience. Different theorists sometimes use different which frequently includes concerns about winning the labels. approval of other people. NEED FOR INTIMACY A motivating state of tension that Extraversion: engagement and interest in social can be relieved by seeking out warm, positive interactions, including friendliness, relationships with others. gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, NEED FOR POWER A motivating state of tension that excitement seeking, and cheerfulness. Agreeableness: cooperative orientation to can be relieved by gaining control over other people others, including acceptance, frankness, and one’s environment. compassion, congeniality, modesty, and sympathy. FUNDAMENTAL INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS Emotional support: Group members express their ORIENTATION (FIRO) A theory of group formation and caring, concern, and affection for one another; they development that emphasizes compatibility among minimize self-doubt, tension, and vulnerability while three basic social motives: inclusion, control, and increasing self-esteem, resilience, and self-satisfaction. affection (developed by William Schutz). Members compliment, encourage, and listen to one another. 4-1D MEN, WOMEN, AND GROUPS Informational support: Groups provide members with useful information for solving problems, making Women are, in general, higher in relationality—that is, decisions, and setting their goals; they offer advice, their values, attitudes, and outlooks emphasize and guidance, and suggestions. facilitate establishing and maintaining connections to others (Gore & Cross, 2006). Women expect more Instrumental support: Groups offer tangible assistance reciprocity and loyalty in their one-to-one friendship to their members, as when they help each other with relationships as well as intimacy, solidarity, and assigned tasks, loan money and materials to one companionship (Hall, 2011). Men are more agentic than another, or work collaboratively on shared tasks. women and so are more likely to join with other men in Meaning: Groups provide members with existential, or order to perform a task or reach a goal (Twenge, 1997). spiritual support, by allaying existential anxiety, RELATIONALITY The degree to which one’s values, reconfirming members’ world views, and sharing faith and perspectives. attitudes, and outlooks emphasize and facilitate establishing and maintaining connections to others. 4-1E ATTITUDES, EXPERIENCES, AND 4-2C SOCIAL COMPARISON AND THE SELF EXPECTATIONS DOWNWARD SOCIAL COMPARISON Selecting people COLLABORATIVE CIRCLE A relatively small group of who are less well off as targets for social comparison peers who work together for an extended period of (rather than individuals who are similar or superior to time, exchanging ideas for commentary and critique oneself or one’s outcomes). and developing a shared conception of what their UPWARD SOCIAL COMPARISON Selecting people who methods and goals should be. are superior to oneself or whose outcomes surpass one’s own as targets for social comparison. SOCIAL MOVEMENT A deliberate, sustained, and organized group of individuals seeking change or SELF-EVALUATION MAINTENANCE (SEM) MODEL A resisting a change in a social system. Movements are theoretical analysis of social comparison processes that sustained by individuals who may share a common assumes that individuals maintain and enhance their outlook on issues or by members of identifiable social self-esteem by associating with high-achieving groups or categories, but not by businesses, political individuals who excel in areas that are not relevant to organizations, or governments. the individual’s own sense of self-esteem and avoiding association with high-achieving individuals who excel in AFFILIATION The gathering together of individuals areas that are important to the individual’s sense of (typically members of the same species) in one self-esteem (developed by Abraham Tesser). location; also, a formalized relationship, as when an individual is said to be affiliated with a group or SOCIAL COMPARISON ORIENTATION The dispositional organization. tendency to compare oneself to others. SOCIAL COMPARISON The process of contrasting one’s personal qualities and outcomes, including beliefs, 4-3 ATTRACTION attitudes, values, abilities, accomplishments, and PROXIMITY PRINCIPLE The tendency for individuals to experiences, to those of other people. form interpersonal relations with those who are close by; also known as the “principle of propinquity.” 4-2B STRESS AND AFFILIATION ELABORATION PRINCIPLE The tendency for groups to SOCIAL SUPPORT A sense of belonging, emotional expand in size as nonmembers become linked to a support, advice, guidance, tangible assistance, and group member and thus become part of the group perspective provided by groups when members itself; this process is termed percolation in network experience stress, daily hassles, and more significant theory. life crises. SIMILARITY PRINCIPLE The tendency for individuals to SOCIAL SUPPORT CAN TAKE MANY FORMS, seek out, affiliate with, or be attracted to an individual RANGING FROM ACCEPTANCE AND INCLUSION TO who is similar to them in some way; this tendency CONFIRMATION OF IDENTITY AND PURPOSE (SEE causes groups and other interpersonal aggregates to be UCHINO, 2004). homogenous rather than diverse. Belonging: Groups let members know that they are HOMOPHILY “Love of the same”; the tendency for the valued members and reassure them that they are not members of groups and other collectives to be similar alone in facing their problems; they meet members’ to one another in some way, such as demographic need to feel included and accepted. background, attitudes, and values; generally expressed group cohesion and is a necessary, if not sufficient, informally as “birds of a feather flock together.” condition for a group to exist. COMPLEMENTARITY PRINCIPLE A tendency for A group’s social cohesion is determined by how much opposites to attract when the ways in which people are the members like each other and the group itself (Lott dissimilar are congruent (complementary) in some way & Lott, 1965). INTERCHANGE COMPATIBILITY - Compatibility Equifinality: final states or objectives may be reached between group members based on their similar needs in different ways and from disparate starting points. for inclusion, control, and affection (defined by William (identified by LUDWIG VON BERTALANFFY). Schutz). ORIGINATOR COMPATIBILITY - Compatibility between 5 SOURCES OF COHESION group members that occurs when individuals who wish to express inclusion, control, or affection within the 1. SOCIAL COHESION: The attraction of members to group are matched with individuals who wish to receive one another and to the group as a whole. inclusion, control, or affection from others (defined by 2. TASK COHESION: A shared commitment among William Schutz). members to achieve a goal and the resulting capacity to perform successfully as a coordinated RECIPROCITY PRINCIPLE The tendency for liking to be unit. met with liking in return; when A likes B, then B will 3. COLLECTIVE COHESION: Unity based on shared tend to like A. identity and belonging. MINIMAX PRINCIPLE A general preference for 4. EMOTIONAL COHESION: Group-based emotions, relationships and memberships that provide the including pride, esprit de corps, and overall maximum number of valued rewards and incur the affective intensity. fewest number of possible costs. 5. STRUCTURAL COHESION: The group’s structural integrity, including normative coherence, clarity of roles, and strength and density of relationships linking members 4-3B THE ECONOMICS OF MEMBERSHIP COMPARISON LEVEL (CL) In social exchange theory, 5-1A SOCIAL COHEISON the standard by which the individual evaluates the SOCIAL COHESION is the attraction of members to one quality of any social relationship. In most cases, another and to the group as a whole. individuals whose prior relationships yielded positive rewards with few costs will have higher CLs than those Interpersonal Attraction an attraction between who experienced fewer rewards and more costs in prior individuals is a basic ingredient for most groups, but relationships (described by John Thibaut and Harold when these relations intensify and proliferate Kelly) throughout a group, they can transform a run-of-the- mill group into a cohesive one. COMPARISON LEVEL FOR ALTERNATIVES (CLalt) In social exchange theory, the standard by which Social psychologists KURT LEWIN, LEON FESTINGER, individuals evaluate the quality of other groups that and their colleagues conducted some of the earliest they may join (described by John Thibaut and Harold studies of group cohesion. Kelly). Group-Level Attraction Social cohesion increases when group members like each other. Cohesion, however, is a multilevel process, for group members may be CHAPTER 5: bonded to each other, to their group, and to the organization in which their group is embedded. COHESION AND 5-1B TASK COHESION TASK COHESION is a shared commitment among DEVELOPMENT members to achieve a goal and the resulting capacity to perform successfully as a coordinated unit. Group Motivation Task cohesion is based on group-level 5-1 SOURCES OF COHESION goal motivation. HAESUS means to cling to; it is the basis of such words group cohesiveness is so strong that all members feel as adhesive, inherit, and, of course, cohesive. united in a common effort, then group-oriented Cohesive groups remain united, over time and across motives should replace individualistic motives, and the situations, whereas less cohesive groups experience desire among members for group success should be frequent changes in their membership, their processes, strong (Zander, 1971). and their procedures (Cartwright, 1968). Collective Efficacy and Potency Groups that are A group is not just a set of individuals, but a cohesive cohesive, in terms of task commitment, tend to exhibit whole that joins the members together in interlocking high levels of collective efficacy and group potency. interdependencies. This solidarity or unity is called Collective efficacy is determined by members’ shared 5-1F ASSUMPTIONS AND ASSESSMENTS beliefs that they can accomplish all the components of their group’s tasks THE MULTICOMPONENT ASSUMPTION A multicomponent approach embraces this definitional The belief, shared among a substantial diversity by suggesting that many different factors contribute to the unity of a group portion of the group members, that the group is capable of organizing and executing THE MULTILEVEL ASSUMPTION Social cohesion includes the actions required to attain the group’s both liking for specific members but also liking for the goals and successfully complete its tasks. group itself. group potency: The level of the group’s shared THE MULTIMETHOD ASSUMPTION Since cohesion is optimism regarding its collective capabilities. multifaceted, researchers use a wide variety of methods to measure it. 5-1C COLLECTIVE COHESION COLLECTIVE COHESION is the degree to which the 5-2 DEVELOPING COHESION group unites its members, as indicated by the perceived solidarity of the group (entitativity) and Theories of group development seek to describe these members’ identification with the group. recurring patterns of change in a group’s structure and interactions that occur over the course of the group’s Cohesion and Entitativity A group that is higher in existence. collective cohesion will, in most cases, be a group that is higher in entitativity: It will be perceived to be a successive-stage models—suggest that groups move single, unified entity that resists disintegration. through a series of separable stages as they develop Belonging and Identity When a group is highly cohesive, Cyclical models, in contrast, argue that groups members’ identities will be based more on their repeatedly cycle through periods or phases during their membership in that group rather than their own lifetimes, rather than just moving through each stage personal, unique qualities. once. IDENTITY FUSION THEORY A conceptual analysis that explains the extreme self-sacrifice (such as heroism in the face of danger and terrorism) that sometimes occurs when individual identity is fused with FIVE-STAGE MODEL OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT - A group identity. theoretical analysis of the regularities groups exhibits as they change over time that identifies five stages: orientation (forming), conflict (storming), structure (norming), performance (performing), and dissolution 5-1D EMOTIONAL COHESION (adjourning) (identified and labeled by BRUCE TUCKMAN) EMOTIONAL COHESION- A variety of terms is used to describe group-level emotional states, including élan, morale, pride, esprit de corps, and positive affective MAJOR PROCESSES & CHARACTERISTICS tone. The emotional intensity of the group and individuals when in the group ORIENTATION: FORMING Group-Level Emotions the emotions, although MP: Members become familiar with each other and the traditionally thought to be personal and private are group; dependency and inclusion issues; acceptance of more often interpersonal and socially shared leader and group consensus Affect and Relational Cohesion a number of theorists C: Communications are tentative, polite; concern for believe that the positive emotions that generate ambiguity, group’s goals; leader is active; members are cohesion arise spontaneously during the course of compliant routine interactions in groups—so long as these interactions are relatively pleasant. CONFLICT: STORMING RELATIONAL COHESION THEORY A conceptual MP: Disagreement over procedures; expression of dissatisfaction; tension among members; antagonism analysis of cohesion that assumes members of groups toward leader develop stronger ties to groups that are perceived to be sources of positive feelings or emotions and weaker ties C: Criticism of ideas; poor attendance; hostility; to those perceived to be sources of negative feelings or polarization and coalition formation emotions. STRUCTURE: NORMING 5-1E STRUCTURAL COHESION MP: Growth of cohesiveness and unity; establishment of roles, standards, and relationships; increased trust, STRUCTURAL COHESION The unity of a group that communication derives from the group’s structural integrity, including normative coherence, clarity of roles, and strength and C: Agreement on procedures; reduction in role density of relationships linking members. ambiguity; increased “we-feeling” PERFORMANCE: PERFORMING noncommissioned officers in cohesive units that suffer heavy casualties. Strongly loyal to their MP: Goal achievement; high task orientation; emphasis unit and its mem-bers, these leaders feel so on performance and production responsible for their unit's losses that they C: Decision making; problem solving; mutual withdraw psychologically from the group. cooperation DISSOLUTION: ADJOURNING 5-3B GROUP DYNAMICS AND INFLUENCE MP: Termination of roles; completion of tasks; As cohesion increases, the internal dynamics of the reduction of dependency group intensify, so pressures to conform are greater in C: Disintegration and withdrawal; increased cohesive groups, and individuals’ resistance to these independence and emotionality; regret pressures is weaker. 5-3C GROUP PRODUCTIVITY The cohesive, unified group has, throughout history, 5-2C CYCLES OF DEVELOPMENT been lauded as the most productive, the most likely to win in battle, and the most creative. THE COHESION - PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP Both correlational and experimental studies of all kinds of groups—sports teams, work groups in business settings, expeditions, military squads, and laboratory groups—generally confirm the cohesion - performance relationship: Cohesive groups tend to outperform less unified groups. The success of cohesive groups lies, in part, in the enhanced coordination of their members. In noncohesive groups, members’ activities are uncoordinated and disjointed, but in cohesive groups, each member’s contributions mesh with those of the other group members. Members of cohesive groups all share the same “mental model” of the group’s task and its demands, and this shared prescription for how the task is to be accomplished facilitates their EQUILIBRIUM MODEL (ROBERT BALES) - A conceptual performance. analysis of group development that assumes the focus THE PERFORMANCE - COHESION RELATIONSHIP of a group shifts back and forth between the group's is actually a reciprocal one: When a group performs tasks and the interpersonal relationships among group well at its identified task, the level of cohesion in the members. group increases, but should it fail, disharmony, PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM MODEL - A group disappointment, and a loss of esprit de corps are typically observed. These effects of performance on development theory that assumes groups change gradually over time but that the periods of slow growth cohesion occur even when groups are identical in all respects except one—when some are arbitrarily told are punctuated by brief periods of relatively rapid change. they performed well, but others are told they did not do well. These studies suggest that cohesion is related to 5-3 CONSEQUENCES OF COHESION performance, not because cohesion causes groups to A cohesive group is an intense group, and this intensity perform better, but because groups that perform affects the members, the group’s dynamics, and the better become more cohesive group’s performance in both positive and negative GROUP PRODUCTIVITY- The cohesive, unified group ways. Cohesion leads to a range of consequences—not has, throughout history, been lauded as the most all of them desirable. productive, the most likely to win in battle, and the  Individuals who leave highly cohesive groups, most creative. such as small religious communities, combat units, and gangs, may experience loneliness, chronic guilt, and isolation when their membership in such groups ends.  As groups become highly cohesive, they can become so self-contained that members’ links to nonmembers are severed, virtually isolating the group and its members  Old Sergeant Syndrome- symptoms of psychological dis-turbance, including depression, anxiety, and guilt, exhibited by Meta-analyses suggest that the cohesion–performance syncope, vomiting, organ damage, heart irregularities, relationship is a reciprocal relationship: cohesion gastrointestinal distress, brain damage, multiorgan causes improvements in performance, but performance system failure, spinal cord injury, exposure, also feeds back and causes changes in cohesion. depression, posttraumatic stress, anxiety, and anal, oral, and vaginal trauma (Finkel, 2002). Each year many students are killed or seriously injured in hazing 5-4A COHESION AND INITIATIONS incidents (Goldstein, 2002). INITIATIONS AND COMMITMENT LEON FESTINGER’S (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance offers an intriguing explanation for the relationship between how CHAPTER 6: much new members invest in the group and their commitment to the group. This theory assumes that people prefer to maintain consistency in their thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE An adverse psychological state STRUCTURE that occurs when an individual simultaneously holds two conflicting cognitions. 6-1A NATURE OF SOCIAL NORMS NORMS are a fundamental element of social structure; the group’s rules of order (Fine, 2012). As group 5-4B HAZING standards, they provide direction and motivation, Some groups do not just require members to meet organize social interactions, and make other people’s certain criteria and pass tests of stamina or intellectual responses predictable and meaningful. fitness before allowing entrance. They instead subject new members to cost-creating experiences that have TYPES OF NORMS nothing to do with the actual qualities needed to be a PRESCRIPTIVE NORMS - define the socially appropriate successful group member. way to respond in a situation / A consensual standard Hazing is an entrenched group practice and has been that identifies preferable, positively sanctioned documented in ancient and modern societies and in all behaviors.) parts of the world. Newcomers to groups are routinely PROSCRIPTIVE NORMS - in contrast, are prohibitions; subjected to various abuses for reasons both rational they define the types of actions that should be avoided and completely irrational (Cimino, 2011). if at all possible (Sorrels & Kelley, 1984) / A consensual standard that identifies prohibited, negatively An initiation into a group that subjects the sanctioned behaviors. new member to mental or physical discomfort, harassment, embarrassment, DESCRIPTIVE NORMS - describe what most people ridicule, or humiliation. usually do, feel, or think in a particular situation / A consensual standard that describes how people REASONS WHY HAZING IS STILL REOCCURRING: typically act, feel, and think in a given situation. INJUNCTIVE NORMS - are more evaluative—they BONDING AND DEPENDENCE: As Festinger’s dissonance describe the sorts of behaviors that people ought to theory suggests, individuals who suffer to join a group perform—or else (Gibbs, 1965) / An evaluative value the group more and become more dependent on consensual standard that describes how people should the group as a source of support and acceptance. act, feel, and think in a given situation rather than how DOMINANCE: Initiations serve to introduce new people do act, feel, and think in that situation. members to the hierarchical order of the group and the requirements to recognize and respect veteran members. INTERNALIZATION OF NORMS COMMITMENT: Hazing requires a substantial NORMS are not simply external rules but internalized commitment from newcomers and serves to weed out standards. Members comply with their group’s norms individuals who are not willing to meet the group’s not because they have to but because they want to: demands. Hazing provides newcomers with the means The group’s norms are their own, personal norms. Some to prove their worth. are deliberately put in place when a group is TRADITION: Many groups haze new members because established; the founders of a group may make explicit the dos and don’ts for a group and make acceptance of they feel that they must honor the group’s traditions, these standards a condition for members. established by founding members of the society (Nuwer, 1999). SOCIAL TUNING - The tendency for individuals’ actions Hazing is illegal in a number of states, is aggressive in and evaluations to become more similar to the actions character, yields unhealthy consequences, and does not and assumed evaluations of those around them. even work to increase cohesion, yet this practice continues unofficially. 6-1C THE TRANSMISSION OF NORMS Emergency room physicians report that they have treated victims of hazing for alcoholic coma, chest Sherif confirmed that norms emerge, gradually, as trauma, aspiration, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd degree burns, group members’ behaviors, judgments, and beliefs align over time (Echterhoff, Higgins, & Levine, 2009). even though the other group members were no longer present, the individuals’ judgments  were still consistent with the group’s norms 6-2 ROLES (Sherif, 1966). They had internalized the norm. Role is the function assumed or part played by a person Even if the individuals who originally fostered or thing in a particular situation. the norms are no longer present, their normative innovations remain a part of the THE NATURE OF SOCIAL ROLES organization’s culture, and newcomers must ROLE DIFFERENTIATION - an increase in the number of change to adopt that tradition. roles in a group, accompanied by a gradual decrease in Researchers have studied this norm the scope of these roles as each one becomes more transmission experimentally using a narrowly defined and specialized. generational paradigm: They create a group and then add newcomers to it and retire old- TASK ROLE - any position in a group occupied by a timers until the entire membership of the member who performs behaviors that center on tasks