Module 2: Introduction to the Study of Groups PDF

Module 2: Introduction to the Study of Groups Understanding Group Dynamics & Processes - Consuelo Peralta || by:Rianne Sierra || The intricacies that are happening in a group dynamic are due to the differences of the nature of each group. If you have been very observant in your own grou...

Module 2: Introduction to the Study of Groups Understanding Group Dynamics & Processes - Consuelo Peralta || by:Rianne Sierra || The intricacies that are happening in a group dynamic are due to the differences of the nature of each group. If you have been very observant in your own group membership, as far as you can remember, you would have noticed the glaring differences for each of these groups that you have been through. Your grade school friends maybe are much different from your high school friends. Or your friends from your neighborhood are different from the friends you make from your mom’s or dad’s province where you would always spend your summer vacation. The list could go and on. Discussion If you go back to your answers on the enabling activity , would your answers be that all of those mentioned in each item are all groups? If not, which among the items you answered G and which among the items you answered NG? What were your deciding factors that made you decide that they are a group or that they are not a group? Let’s take for example item 6 which was about the psychology professors attending a webinar and that of the item 7 which was about customers lining-up at the Grocery? Which is a group or which is not? Why? Or Why not? There are many considerations in defining what a group is and what it is not. Theorists would mention the importance of the different aspects to be included in defining what a group is. The following are the important considerations mentioned by Forsyth (2010) that must be present in a group which came from the differing views of theorists. Some would say that one is more important than the other: 1. Communication 2. Mutual dependence 3. Shared purpose or goal One unifying aspect however from among the differences of what the group should be are the following: 1. A group requires at least two people (except for people with extreme psychological disturbance, they cannot be considered a group). A group is composed of two or more people joined together. 2. A group is connected to each other or to one another. A group’s connection is a socially meaningful one. That is to say that their being together is not by accident nor by circumstance but rather by social and emotional bonds that are both meaningful. From the above mentioned, a group is now defined as: two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships. With this definition, I would like you to stop reading this and go back to your answers on our Enabling Activity and check for yourself what you considered a Group or Not a Group. Do they have the qualifications mentioned above? Now going back to our definition: a group is two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships.” Let us deepen our understanding of this definition as we discuss its key components: 1. Two or more individuals - These are important considerations when we talk about group as two or more individuals: A group can range in size from two to thousands of members. Very small collectives such as dyads and triads, are groups. Very large collections of people such as mobs, crowds or congregations are also a group. (Simmel, 1902 as mentioned in Forsyth, 2010). Some other findings from researches as mentioned by Forsyth in 2010:  Most groups tend to be relatively small in size, ranging from two to seven in members (Mullen, 1987) Informal, spontaneously formed groups were small, usually with two or three members Deliberately formed groups, such as those created in government or work settings were also small with 2.3 members (James, 1951) Majority of groups who ate in a cafeteria (especially when crowded) in a college campus were in dyads (Jorgenson and Dukes, 1976). Although groups come in all shapes and sizes, “they tend to gravitate to smallest size, two” (Hare, 1976, p. 215) A group’s size influences its nature in many ways, for a group with only two or three members possesses many unique characteristics simply because they have few members. The dyad is, by definition the only group that dissolves when one member leaves and the only group that can never be broken down into a subgroup (Levine and Moreland, 1995) The members of dyads are sometimes linked by a unique and powerful relationship – love, that makes their dynamics more intense than those found in other groups. · Larger groups have also unique qualities: the members are rarely connected directly to all other members; subgroups are likely to form and one or more leaders maybe needed to organize and lead the group. · By definition however, all are considered groups. 2. Who are Connected Think about your group membership. Maybe your best friend of five or ten years. Or your high school group of friends whom you continue to enjoy being with until now even through the net. Maybe you are now seeing images of your friends and the moments that you were together, of how you enjoy the company of each other. The fun and laughter that you shared together as well as the pains maybe of being separated from them or maybe some issues that you have had with them. I would like you to leave that for a while. Now think about of your own family: your mom and dad, your siblings and how you relate with each other. The many years of your togetherness at home and at many occasions in your lives. You may also think of your other group membership that you keep. What makes you stick together as a group? From among these groups where you are part of what do you think are its common characteristics? Have you thought of some words? What came into you r mind? Maybe you came up with many words. Let’s check your answer in the next paragraph. From your experiences of group membership, you would notice that there is some kind of commonality that binds you to whatever group you are into. We call this as a bond, an invisible one yet it keeps us “tied” to them. Some ties might be so tight and some ties are just enough and some are also loose or weak. Maybe this was one of the words that you thought of. You see, our group membership connects us to the other members of the group, and that, this connection to one or two members in a larger group are interconnected to one another and to the other members of the group. As described by Forsyth (2010), “the members of any given group are networked together like a series of interconnected computers.” 3. By and Within Social Relationships Please take note that as we define what group is, we mentioned that there are varying definitions from the different theories and researches. If we read between the lines, what was common among the varying definitions is the existence of relationship in all of the group membership. To explain this further, Forsyth (2010) took note of the following: A group is a collection of individuals who have relations with one another (Cartwright and Xander, 1968) A group is a social unit which consists of a number of individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status and role relationship in one another(Sherif and Sherif, 1956 pg.144) A bounded pattern of relations among members (Arrow, Mcgrath & Berdahl, 2000 p. 34) It was further explained that “group relationships linked one member to another and to the group as a whole. They define who is in the group itself, for groups, unlike networks who have boundaries.” (Forsyth, 2010) This would tell us the contrasting differences of the link that binds in a group and that of business networks. I remember that at one point in the professional life of my husband (who actually by profession is a manager in the department Environment Health Safety and Security (EHSS) was recruited to work at a big network company. He was so convinced of the business that somehow diverted him temporarily from his profession as he had become so busy establishing ties with the network company. He needed to prove himself through attending seminars and accomplishing the target goals of the company to be able to be considered as part of the network otherwise if he fall short of what was expected of him as a member, his ties with them will be cut – off which actually happened after years of working with them. My husband’s experience in a network company is an example of a link that has boundaries which is void of what it takes to be called a group, and that is, relationship. Unlike in a group, a husband and wife as an example, “usually have a stable but permeable boundary - sometimes stated but sometimes explicitly defined - that differentiate between those who are within the group and those who are outside of the group.” (Forsyth, 2010) It was further explained in the following findings: Group members show a common identity with one another. They know who is their group and who is not, and what qualities are typical of insiders and outsiders (Taifel, 1972). This perception of themselves as members of the same group – or social category – this social identity creates a we and us as well as a sense of they (Abrams et al, 2005).  Social identity can be thought of as “sum total of a person’s social identifications, where the latter represents socially significant social categorizations internalized as aspects of self-concept”(Turner, 1985 p. 527). Group Characteristics Looking a little deeper into the given definition of what a group is, we may find ourselves into some questions that are relevant in understanding some concerns regarding the characteristics that must be present if one has to consider what a group really is. Maybe there are questions that are not answered in the given definition that we discussed above. Some of these questions might be: Who takes the lead in a group? Or is really necessary to have someone lead the group? How part long does group membership should be to be considered as part of the group What does it take to make unified group to be considered as such? In our next discussion, let us look into the different characteristics and qualities that must be present in a group. 1. Interaction Cambridge dictionary will tell us that interaction means: “an occasion when two or more people or things communicate with or react to each other” (Retrieved: https://dictiona ry.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/interaction August 28, 2020). From this definition you would notice the requirement that must be considered for an interaction to happen, and that is, the presence of two or more people. The second requirement is the use of communication as a means to reach out to the other person concerned.  Each group member gives suggestion to finish the task. Bales, 1950, 1999 in Forsyth, 2010 conducted an experiment in his laboratory by watching them closely. These groups as mentioned are the naturally existing groups but some groups are formed for this purpose. The results of his experiment would tell us that group interaction is as varied as the human behavior in itself as he took note of the following findings: Group members exchange information with each other, through verbal and nonverbal communication. Group members got into arguments, talked over issues and made decisions. They upset each other, gave one another help and support, and took advantage of each other’s weaknesses. They work together to accomplish difficult tasks, but they sometimes slacked off when they thought nobody would notice.  Group members taught each other new things and they touched each other literally and emotionally. What were significant in above mentioned study as concluded by Bales, 1950, 1999 in Forsyth, 2010 in trying to understand Interaction as an important quality in group were two basic types of interactions: A. Relationship interaction (socioemotional interaction). Relationship interaction is defined as “actions performed by group members that relate to or influence the emotional or interpersonal bonds within the group including both positive actions (Social support, consideration) and negative actions (criticism, conflict).” Thus, it is further explained that this pertains to the interpersonal, social side of the group life. If some members of the group feel low and need support other members would offer help and try to cheer them up. However, it is not limited of course to a positive interaction as spelled out in the definition. This would also include conflicts and disagreements where members would criticize and argue with each other that would sometimes cause embarrassment. There are also those who are generous in giving compliments like telling a colleague or classmate that her or his clothes finely fit him or her or sometimes there are also those who would criticize ones newly cut or colored hair. All of these are also examples of relationship interaction. B. Task Interaction. Task interaction is defined as “actions performed by group members that pertains to the group projects, tasks and goals.” As this definition tells us task interaction is in contrast with that of relationship interaction where the former encompasses all the behavior of the members of the group that focuses mainly on the attainment of the work that has been entrusted to them. From the common experiences of group work, it could be noted that members “coordinate and pool their resources, skills and motivations so that the group can make a decision, generate a product or achieve a victory.”(Forsyth, 2010) In my own experiences of facilitating groups, whether this be in an organization or classroom situations, the task interaction described by Forsyth can always be identified among these groups. As members were given work at hand, they strive to do the coordinating and sharing their own resources, talents and skills to be able to come – up with what is expected of them.  Each member makes sure that their movements are synchronized in order to accomplish the task. 2. 2. Goals If If you search the online dictionary, goal means, the end toward which effort is directed. (Retrieved: www.merriam-webster.com August 28, 2020). This definition would tell us that it is about the end-product by which we would like to achieve towards a particular direction. As an example, a Team Building Activity was facilitated at the College Seminary. In an introduction, the facilitator posted as part of the activity some questions: “Why are you here, and not somewhere else?” Definitely, groups are formed for a reason. Answering this question is one of the major activities that was done in a Team Building Activity and this was called goal setting. In In many groups that are formed, there would always be a corresponding reason for them to exist. The college seminarians have so many tasks that await them for the coming school  year. Thus, the Team Building Activity might help them clarify their goals so that they can work well with each other and achieve the different tasks assigned to them. 3. 3. Interdependence Interdependence as defined is “the state of being dependent to some degree on other people, as when one’s outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings and experiences are determined in whole or in part by others.” Some illustrations of experiences will help us a little more of what interdependence is in the context of the characteristics of groups. De La Salle University – Dasmarinas as an institution is a good example of interdependence. As a member school of De La Salle Philippines, the incarnation of its mission is dependent of what has been set both by the De La Salle Brothers who own the institute and their lay partners and how they would have to cascade it to all their stakeholders. DLSU-D would cease to exist as a member of De La Salle Philippines if it would just have to operate only on its own without considering the mission or the goals of the De La Salle Brothers where the university’s vision-mission is anchored on. In the same manner that the Brothers’ mission is also dependent on how it is implemented by the administration, faculty and staff. The productivity and creativity of each member of the institution depends largely on how all of them work hand in hand towards the achievement of their goal. Another good example that I could think of in understanding interdependence is that of a husband and wife. To a certain extent the husband is dependent on matters of household chores and child-rearing while the wife, if she opted to work as a full-time wife and mother that entails giving all of her time in taking care of the needs of the family at home will certainly become dependent on her husband in financial matters.  You might have been into a loving relationship with somebody. It could be a boyfriend or a girlfriend or a best friend. From that experience you would notice how much, to some degree, you have become emotionally or even cognitively dependent with each other. Our list here could go on and on. I hope you’re able to get a good grasp of understanding of interdependence as a characteristic of a group. With that we are moving on the fourth characteristics of group and that is about the group structure. 4. Group Structure By definition, group structure pertains to “the underlying patterns of roles, norms and relations that organizes groups” (Forsyth, 2010). This definition would tell us of the important aspects of the group structure which are roles, norms and relations. The first aspect of the group structure is roles. Roles is defined as “A coherent set of behaviors expected of people who occupy specific positions within a group.” (Forsyth, 2010). This means that members of a group are expected to play specific functions as they were entrusted with certain positions. As further explained, “the roles of leader and follower are fundamental ones in many groups, but other roles— information seeker, information giver, elaborator, procedural technician, encourager, compromiser, harmonizer—may emerge in any group (Benne & Sheats,1948 in Forsyth 2010) In your own experience of group membership, you may have noticed the roles played by individuals. Leaders for example are expected to take initiatives in so many ways like planning, assigning tasks, giving directions of the group, inspiring motivating, bridging the gap, setting boundaries and caring for the members of the group. While followers or members of the group are expected to cooperate and fulfill the specific functions and duties that are designated to them. Another important aspect of group structure is the norm which is defined as “A consensual and often implicit standard that describes what behaviors should and should not be performed in a given context”(Forsyth, 2010). As one becomes a member of a group sometimes there are defined behaviors that are expected of them but sometimes these are also implicitly defined. If one is a new member of a group, one tries to fulfil not only of his or her role as a member of the group but also strives to observe the standards of behavior that are set by the organization. Otherwise if he or she would not be able comply with those aspects that would lead to either dismissal whether voluntary or involuntary. Sometimes this actually create conflicts and misunderstanding between and among members. Thus, norms just like roles are also defined and sometimes renegotiated. Your own experiences of group membership or of being in a group for a class project or in an organization. As a teacher, counselor and professor for more than thirty years, I have been a witness of so many students who complain about their group membership as one or two members would not fulfil roles that are assigned to them, thus would cause one to withdraw and transfer to another group, worse some would lead to the eventual dropping-out of the university. 5. Unity The last but important characteristic of group is, unity. This pertains to the solidarity, the interpersonal forces that binds them together as one group. It is the so-called “weness” or “groupness” that creates a feeling of belongingness. This is what they call as group cohesion. Group cohesion is defined as “the strength of the bonds linking individuals to and in the group.” Interestingly, in trying to illustrate further the meaning of group cohesion, Forsyth (2010) explained from another study that says: In physics, the molecular integrity of matter is known as cohesiveness. When matter is cohesive, the particles that constitute it bond together so tightly that they resist any competing attractions. But when matter is not cohesive, it tends to disintegrate over time as the particles drift away or adhere to some other nearby object. Similarly, in human groups, cohesion is the integrity, solidarity, and unity of a group. All groups require a modicum of cohesiveness, else the group would disintegrate and cease to exist as a group (Dion, 2000). It could be noted therefore from the above-mentioned the importance of group cohesion for the members to stay together. This is an important determining factor so that members would remain in the group. Another important aspect of unity is entitativity, which means being viewed as one entity. Which as said to be “described by Donald Campbell, the extent to which an assemblage of individuals is perceived to be a group rather than an aggregation of independent, unrelated individuals; the quality of being an entity”  Entitativity as an aspect of unity is actually coming from the perception of the onlookers outside of the group itself. A group may not be very cohesive but from the eyes of the outsider they may be perceived as one. That the group as they appear to be are so cohesive, therefore, this aspect depends on other people’s perception which is not part of the group. This could be well understood in the photos being posted at social media as an example. You may perhaps know of families or couples or even friends who in the photos may appear to be so closely bonded but you may have learned from an insider that this is not really so in the real-life situations. What I mean is, people may appear as though they are one whether this be in photos or in public, and that is, how people might view them but them from the group itself it may not always be the case. Donald Campbell (1958a in Forsyth 2010), who is said to have coined the term entitativity in group talks about the factors that lead people to perceive this way. He said that group would send certain cues that would lead to the onlookers’ perception of entitativity that must be present in that particular group. These are the following: Common fate: Do the individuals experience the same or interrelated outcomes? Similarity: Do the individuals perform similar behaviors or resemble one another? Proximity: How close together are the individuals in the aggregation? To summarize our discussion of the Characteristics of Groups are the following (Forsyth, 2010 p12): Feature Description  Interaction Groups create, organize, and sustain relationship and task interactions among members Goals Groups have instrumental purposes, for they facilitate the achievement of aims or outcomes sought by the members Interdependence Group members depend on one another, in that each member influences and is influenced by each other member Structure Groups are organized with each individual connected to others in a pattern of relationships Unity Groups are cohesive social arrangements of individuals, that perceivers, in some cases, consider as one unified whole. Lesson: The Circumplex Model of Group Tasks Circumplex Model of Group Tasks What you will be seeing below is a figure of the circumplex model of group tasks. It is a contextual taxonomy developed by Joseph E. McGrath (1984, in Forsyth 2010). It orders group tasks in a circular pattern based on two continua: cooperative-competitive and conceptual-behavioral: Further, this circumplex model according to Forsyth (2010) brings to order the many goal-related activities that the group undertake. Hopefully this will expand our horizon in understanding group goals and its tasks: F I G U R E 1.2 McGrath’s task circumplex model of group tasks. The theory identifies eight basic activities undertaken by groups—planning, creating, solving problems, making decisions, forming judgments, resolving conflicts, competing, and performing—and arranges them in a circle based on two dimensions: executing–choosing and generating–negotiating. Tasks in the upper four quadrants require cooperation among members, whereas conflict is more likely when groups undertake those tasks in the lower quadrants. Tasks on the right side of the circle are behavioral ones, whereas those on the left side of the circle are more intellectual, conceptual tasks. SOURCE: McGrath, Groups: Interaction and Performance, 1st, © 1984. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey McGraths model of group tasks spells out four basic group goals: 1. Generating ideas or plans 2. Choosing a solution 3. Negotiating a solution to a conflict 4. Executing (or performing) a task The Figure shown indicates each of these basic categories can be further subdivided yielding a total of eight basic goal related activities: 1. Generating. Groups that will concoct the strategies that they will use to accomplish their goals (Type 1: planning task) or to create altogether new ideas or approaches to their problem (Type 2: creativity task) 2. Choosing: Groups that make decisions about issues that have correct solutions (Type 3: intellective tasks) or questions that can be answered in many ways. (Type 4: decision-making tasks) 3. Negotiating. Groups that must resolve differences of opinion among members regarding their goals or decisions (Type 5: cognitive conflict tasks) or resolve competitive disputes among members. (Type 6: mixed motives tasks) 4. Executing. Groups that do things, including taking part in competitions (Type 7: contests/battles/competitive tasks) or working together to create some product or collective actions. (Type 8: performances/psychomotor tasks) Forsyth (2010) explained further that in the study of McGrath presented above, he pointed out the clear differences between conceptual - behavioral goals and cooperation – conflict goals. In his analysis, he tried to point out the following: Some of the goals that groups pursue require them to take actions (Tasks 1, 6, 7 and 8) Others focus on deliberation, for they require a conceptual review (Tasks 2, 3, 4 and 5) Some of the goals are purely collaborative ones – they require that group members work together to accomplish their goals (Types 1, 3 and 8) Others goals in contrast, tend to pit in individuals and/or groups against each other (Types 4, 5, 6 and 7) Some groups perform tasks from nearly all of McGraths category whereas others concentrate only one subset of goals. Lesson: Types of Groups Types of Groups 1. Primary Group It is defined as “A small, long-term group, such as families and friendship cliques, characterized by face-toface interaction, solidarity, and high levels of member to-group interdependence and identification; Charles Cooley believed such groups serve as the primary source of socialization for members by shaping their attitudes, values and social orientation” (Forsyth, 2010) All of us belong to a primary group. We all experienced how it is to be part of a primary group, these are our own families, close friends who sometimes we call as siblings born from another mother.These groups are all personally meaningful to us. They are responsible for what we have become as members of the group. It is through them that we learned the socialization process, and, thus how we look at things and what we hold dear to us are greatly influenced by our primary group. My family Forsyth (2010), took note of the study of the sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1909) who according to him, “referred to these kinds of groups as primary groups because they are typically the first group people join, but also because they fulfill such an important role in people’s lives. Cooley thought that primary groups protect members from harm, care for them when they are ill, and provide them with shelter and sustenance. But he believed that their most important function was in creating a bridge between the individual and society at large”. 2. Social Groups. The second type of group is called social groups which is described as: “A relatively small number of individuals who interact with one another over an extended period of time, such as work groups, clubs, and congregations.” : Students formed a study group to compete for PAP JA Quiz Bee The social group however is much bigger and formally organized as compared to the primary group. Oftentimes they are formed for the fulfillment of certain tasks. It has certain boundaries and limitation. When the task has been completed sometimes it ceases as a group. Some examples would be, your study group, your organization, a committee, a prayer group and the likes. We learn from Forsyth (2010) that sociologists used other terms for the social groups: “Various terms have been used to describe this category of groups, such as secondary groups (Cooley, 1909), associations(MacIver & Page, 1937), task groups (Lickel, Hamilton, & Sherman, 2001), and Gesellschaften (Toennies, 1887/1963).” 3. Collectives The third type of group is called collectives which is described as “larger group whose members act in similar and sometimes unusual ways.” Examples of these are people in protest movement, bystanders watching a house or building burning. Given these examples you would notice that people in collectives are larger groups of people and seem to be spontaneously formed and loosely connected to each other. 4. Category The last type of group is called category. Category is defined as an “aggregation of individuals who are similar to one another in some ways.” Examples of this would be students who study in a La Salle school is called Lasallians, students from Ateneo are called Ateneans, UP students are called Isko/Iska for Scholar ng Bayan. Gathering of students in assemblies could be categorized as a group according to their identity as to where the school they are coming from. One important aspect to consider here is said to be the social implications as thus explained, “If a category has no social implications, then it only describes individuals who share a feature in common and is not a meaningful group. If, however, these categories set in motion personal or interpersonal processes—then a category may be transformed into a highly influential group.” At the given examples of students coming from different universities, these are so noticeable in athletic competitions like the UAAP as how one group becomes more influential more than the other. Lasallians in Green for example would be shouting: Animo La Salle! Or students from UST would be shouting: Go! Go Uste! And so on and so forth. Type of Group Characteristics Examples Primary groups Small, long-term groups Close friends characterized by face-to-face interaction and high levels of Families,gang cohesiveness, solidarity, and s member identification Military squads Social groups Small groups of moderate Coworkers, duration and permeability characterized by moderate levels Crews of interaction among the members over an extended period Expeditions of time, often in goal-focused situations Fraternities Sports teams Collectives Aggregations of individuals that Audiences form spontaneously, last only a brief period of time, and have Bystanders very permeable boundaries Crowds Mobs Waiting lines Categories Aggregations of individuals who Students are similar to one another in some way, such as gender, ethnicity, Asians religion, or nationality Doctors