Review for Exam 2 Fall 2024 PDF

**[Review for Exam 2]** ----------------------------------- -- This review is not necessarily all encompassing, but should be a good aid to your test preparation. -- Make my own examples for each to help with application. or look up my own examples. compliance obedience, persuasion conformity are...

**[Review for Exam 2]** ----------------------------------- -- This review is not necessarily all encompassing, but should be a good aid to your test preparation. -- Make my own examples for each to help with application. or look up my own examples. compliance obedience, persuasion conformity are all forms of social influence **[Attitudes] (Caylin & Booth)** Define & describe attitudes - a consistent assessment of an object, person, group, issue, or concept (attitude object) ranging from negative to positive - the way you think and feel about something that can be reflected in your behavior. What is the theory of planned behavior? (TPB) - a theory that explains intention based on the impact of attitude towards behavior (ATT). subjective norms regarding the behavior and perceived control over the behavior (PBC) - intention influences action (behavior) - developed by ajzen in 1985 What is the application of the theory of planned behavior? - market research and consumer behavior, financial decision- making, entrepreneurship and business start-ups, employee motivation and organizational behavior, supply chain management, international business and global market entry. The impact of attitudes can vary depending on - "Strength, accessibility, careful consideration, ambivalence, certainty, importance, knowledge, moralization, aversiveness" - [strength:] based on durability and impact. (long term stability and natural tendency to withstand attacks against influences) - long term stability or instability. resistance or susceptibility to persuasion. influencs what information we attend to (info that supports our strong attitudes) - behaviors are influenced by strong attitudes - [accessibility:] how strong the metal link between the object being evaluated and its evolution - how easily you can retrieve and act on your attitude. (bias testing) - the faster you act on and retrieve your attitude the stronger the accessibility. - more accessible attitudes tend to be stable, protected against persuasion, **behavior predictors**, attentionally biased - [careful consideration:] more effortful thinking = stronger and more thought (logic) based - attitudes that are formed on the basis of careful consideration tend to be more resistant to persuasion, provide more long term consistency and related to pertinent behaviors. - [ambivalence]: (mixed or contradictory feelings) if you have this type you will react both positively and negatively. usually comes w the feeling of confusion and confliction. **marker for attitude weakness**. [ambivalence= more susceptible to persuasion] and weakens the consistency between outcomes of attitude on behaviors - [certainty:] firm belief that results in the implementation of certain attitudes that is subjective in nature. - **predictor of attitude strength**. the more certainty, the less likely to be persuaded - stable over time - [importance as a predictor:] a subjective measure of care for a specific attitude. - associated with the maintenance of certain attitude is a predictor of attitude strength - high importance is associated with - more persuasion resistance - more long term stability - consistency between attitude and behavior interactions - an increase of bias towards information that supports attitudes - [knowledge as a predictor]: working knowledge- the past events and experiences that are remembered when evaluating an attitude object - predicts long term stability of an attitude and connection to future behaviors - [moralization as a predictor:] the amount to which people attribute attitudes to core moral value - allows for a positively correlated relationship between moral based attitudes and influence resistance - predictors are not defining properties Understand how attitudes vary on each of the above factors and what this means for individuals What is the Theory of Correspondent Inferences? - freely offered opinion statements are attributed to assumed attitudes that correspond w the opinion statement - how people make attribution about the motives behind another person's behavior. why people make internal or external attributions. ex: if i see a teenager run to help an old person cross the road, i might use correspondent inferences theory to infer that the teenager is helpful, empathic and kind bc they live with a grand parent - - study: Jones and Davis 1965 - given an inference that assigns an attribute to account for an act, the correspondence of that inference increases as the judged value of the attribute departs from the judge's conception of the average person's standing - correspondent inferences are inferences that account for a persons actions, which increases in confidence and certainty as a person's uniqueness increases - When does it increase? - when perceived choice is high and the probability that we act would occur before hand is low - there is negative correlation between the information obtained in a statement or act and the prior probability of the statement/ action occurring What are the ABCs of attitudes? - affective component (feelings) - emotional response or feelings about associated w an attitude towards something - behavioral component (actions) - This represents the actions or observable behaviors that result from an attitude - cognitive component (beliefs) - This refers to the thoughts, beliefs, and knowledge about something that contribute to an attitude, like believing that exercise is beneficial for health. Define and describe prejudice - preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members. it is supported by stereotypes - When I hear someone is from texas im going to assume they are very conservative and i hold negative beliefs about conservatives. So i decide avoid them or act negatively towards them - discrimination - unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members - racism - prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people - ex: trump not selling homes, hiring, giving loans to black people - sexism - prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex - ex: hiring processes women get hired less and promoted less if same or more qualifications than men. - this all boils down to attitudes of these groups How does the study of prejudice link to attitudes? - prejudice is a negative attitude towards a group of people based on their membership to that group. - the actions that result from holding prejudiced attitudes are called discrimination Discrimination VS Stereotype VS Prejudice - Discrimination : unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members - the differential treatment of people based on their group membership. - stereotype: beliefs about the personal attributes of a group or people - oversimplified beliefs about a group of people, where all individuals are assumed to have the same characteristics. they can be positive or negative - prejudice: preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individuals. supported by stereotypes - typically based on misinformation about a group Understand Racism Vs Sexism - Racism- prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race - ethnicity, marginalization or unequal treatment of individuals or groups based on perceived racial characteristic - Sexism- prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex - stereotypes and unequal treatment, frequently targeting women or gener non-conforming individuals but can also affect men - both are a type of discrimination Do these still exist today? yes - subtle forms of prejudice - Labor market discrimination impacted by racial group or gender - ex: when applying for jobs "white" name to "black" name w the same resume. less "black" names got call backs than those with "white" names. (black : 15:1 vs white 10:1) those w muslim sounding names did not get a call back - women paid more for a car than men did, but black women paid more then anyone else. - trans vs cis people: worse pay and less jobs for transgender folk - patronization - offensively treating someone w/ care. treating someone as less than in some capacity based on group membership. - EX: teachers gave less negative feedback to individuals that were minorities. this actually hurt them. you need critical feedback to develop and grow. - overpraising accomplishments - ex: over help of blind individuals (Wang et al 2015) - medical biases - ex: 287 physicians: more bias = reduced drug recommendations due to racial bias. What is modern racism? - covert/ implicit racism. - a culture of racism - ex: those that are in denial of racism " that doesn't exist anymore" - ex: attitudes against the promotion of equality - The online environment has lots of anger and resentment, but in real life it is not as overt. Explicit VS Implicit prejudice -- how does these impact individuals? - Explicit prejudice - conscious - overt - emotional and mental health issues can arise - limited opportunities because of discrimination in hiring, housing or education. - implicit prejudice - automatic - involves primitive regions of the brain (amygdala) associated w fear. the fear of the "unknown" could trigger a fear response - how to get around a fear response? - increase exposure, talk about it and meet more people from that group, talk to others more to train your brain to be less susceptible to others, dont associate differences with fear. - subtle - microaggressions, hiring practices, health disparities. - unconscious labor market discrimination - unconscious health discrimination How do we assess attitudes? - implicit association tests - [does not always predict prejudice]- it doesn\'t mean that it will lead to behaviors Why do we take this method? - most people wont admit to holding prejudice or bias. they may not even be aware they hold it. they dont like how it looks or sounds. IAT = how does this work? - The IAT works by measuring the speed and accuracy with which individuals categorize different words or images into groups. The test is based on the idea that people will respond more quickly and accurately when they are pairing concepts they implicitly associate with each other. - The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a psychological tool designed to measure implicit biases---unconscious attitudes or associations that people hold toward certain groups, objects, or concepts. The IAT was developed by researchers at Harvard University, and it has been widely used to study biases related to race, gender, sexuality, age, and other social categories. Does it have predictive validity? - it has weak predictive validity - attitudes do not always predict behavior. - plus it is only a single method. When do your conscious attitudes lead to behavior? ask chapt gpt Understand the various predictors of when attitudes will lead to behavior - strength - consideration - certainty - morals - importance - knowledge Qualities of the behavior - qualities of the behavior itself - more attitude and behavior alignment when looking at a general **pattern of behavior** - ex: when looking at how often someone goes to class on time for a semester. if they never miss a class i could consider them good vs if they missed often i would consider them a bad student and be less willing to help them study. Qualities of the person Self-monitors - people who are [low self] monitors - more alignment between attitude and behavior - Low self-monitors, on the other hand, are less concerned with social adaptability and more likely to behave consistently across different situations, based on their internal beliefs and values. They prioritize authenticity and are less influenced by social expectations. - genuine - people who are high self monitors - do not align behaviors to attitudes - High self-monitors are highly attentive to social cues and adjust their behavior to fit the expectations and norms of the situation. They can be thought of as "social chameleons" because they easily adapt to different environments and groups. - more susceptible to conformity Qualities of the situation What is the effect of norms? - if there are strong norms (expectations of how you are supposed to behave) - you are more likely to follow society - military situation, - less alignment w yourself - classrooms are high norm but there is wiggle room for individuality - like note taking preference - If norm is high: dip in attitude behavior alignment - If norms or strong you\'ll see a reduction in realignment - What is the effect of time pressure? - you are more likely to act in accordance w attitudes - Talking fast can make you seem more genuine. so you come off as more trustworthy or charismatic - more time to think through might let us act more in line w attitude but it also lets you see more societal views - Minimal time= attitude to behavior alignment. - Lots of time= we might 1. Act according to the situation and what the situation demands. What is the socially desirable response OR 2. You have more time, so you might see some discrepancy. If you are really motivated we wll assess alignment w attitudes and behaviors. Motivated to be true to yourself. - What is the MODE Model? - **M**otivation and **O**pportunity **DE**terminants - explains if you will take the TPB or ABP model - motivation adn opportunity are necessary - opportunity/ chance to have alignment can come in different ways besides time Theory of planned behavior (TPB) - attitudes + norms+ control = intention ----\> behavior - this only works when we have the opportunity to think and plan - cant use when under pressure What is the behavior process model? - only works when opportunity in the form of past experiences - you are familiar with the event, so you do not need as much time - (familiar) event ----\> attitude ----\> perception of event or social norms ----\> behavior - when i see a spider it will not take me alot of time to know how to react, i have done it before, but if i come in contact with a bear, i hav never done that before and need time What are the routes to persuasion? - central and peripheral route - process by which a message induces change in beliefs attitudes or behavior - TALE of persuasion - **T**rusted source-\> internal **A**cceptance-\> clear **L**ogic-\> **E**motional appeal What is the ELM? - elaboration likelihood model central route - - - - - - focuses on arguments and looking at details - more durable and more likely to influence behavior (more stability) - example - when i buy clothes it is based on what the material is made out of and if it is worth the price, Ely mainly buys based on looks alone. - however i do more of a combination bc it has to be my style too. peripheral route - - - - - - - - political endorsement, looking at aesthetic, hair, clothes - superficial and temportary attitude change (more wishy washy) - good presidential candidates aim to do both. they must have good policies, look good, and have good endorsements. is central or peripheral longer lasting? - central What makes a message more persuasive than others? - authority can overrule your thinking. **[Cognitive Dissonance] (Claudia)** What is the definition of cognitive dissonance? - state of discomfort that arouses when a persons beliefs and behavior contradict one another - inconsistency between cognition produces an aversive state of arousal How can we restore consistency when faced with inconsistency? - modify your beliefs or attitudes. - seeking justification for the behavior - minimizing the importance of the conflict What is cognitive dissonance theory? - It proposes that people experience psychological discomfort (or dissonance) when they hold two or more conflicting cognitions---such as beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. This discomfort motivates individuals to reduce the inconsistency and restore a sense of internal harmony. - According to Festinger, individuals are motivated to reduce dissonance because it is uncomfortable. The theory suggests that people are driven to achieve consistency between their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. - **Methods to Reduce Dissonance**: People may attempt to alleviate dissonance by changing their beliefs, acquiring new information, justifying their behavior, or minimizing the significance of the conflict. How does the notion of cognitive dissonance link to previous content on attitudes and behavior? - you behave in a discriminatory manner but you say you aren\'t biased so what do you do? change your attitude or behavior? How has cognitive dissonance been assessed in research? What are the various paradigms used? - [free choice paradigm :] individuals will experience cognitive dissonance when given a choice. to reduce dissonance, people will value the chosen item more than the non chosen item - [induced compliance paradigm]: when individuals are persuaded through incentives to express opinions or make a statement that contradicts their actual belief/ opinion. large incentives leads to external justification, but small incentives leads to insufficient justification (more cognitive dissonance) Be able to describe Festinger and Carlsmith's study to me. (Including the tasks, the conditions, etc.) - **induced compliance paradigm** - participants were told that the study was examining performance. - **three conditions:** - control - one dollar - twenty dollars - **task** - (purposely boring) - put 12 spools onto a tray, empty the tray refill with spools - turn each peg a quarter - participants where then asked to tell the next participants about the experiment. - participants were asked to rate how enjoyable the task were on a scale of -5 to +5 - **enjoyable rating** - control condition: -.45 rating - one dollar condition: +1.35 - twenty dollar condition: -.05 - **desire to participate in a similar experiment?** - \$1 condition more likely to participate again - difference was significant between \$1 and control condition - **scientific importance of experiment** - significant difference between he \$1 and \$20 condition What were the results of the study? - **\$1 Condition**: Participants who were paid only \$1 rated the task as significantly more enjoyable afterward than those in the \$20 condition. or control Since \$1 was a small amount, these participants experienced cognitive dissonance because they had [insufficient justification] for lying. To reduce this discomfort, they changed their attitudes to align with their statements, convincing themselves that the task wasn't so bad after all. - the study underscored the notion that **people are motivated to seek consistency between their attitudes and behaviors**, and when they act in ways that contradict their attitudes with insufficient justification, they are likely to adjust their attitudes to resolve the dissonance What is insufficient justification, and what role does it play in the results of Festinger and Carlsmith's study? - insufficient justification: when there is little external reward or reason for acting against one\'s belief, people are more likely to change their attitudes to resolve the dissonance - due to the \$1 condition, they did not have justification for lying and saying it was fun. to reduce the discomfort, they changed their attitudes to align w their statement, convincing themselves it wasnt boring Where is cognitive dissonance seen in real life? - smoking and drug use. you know its bad for you and you do it anyway - someone who is environmentally concerned, believes in reducing waste but still uses plastic bags or bottles for convenience. they might "plan" on using reusable in the future. or tell themselves that they dont use that much of it How can one decrease their dissonance? - changing attitudes or behaviors acquiring new information, justifying their behavior, or minimizing the significance of the conflict. What did Kelman say the options are? - social influence can lead to - compliance - people publicly conform but still hold onto their personal beliefs and opinions - identification - people follow and adopt specific attitudes and behaviors of a group - internalization - when people assimilate the majority opinion in their own belief What did Moscovici say? - different types of social influence - majority influence- leads to public compliance due to external justification (similar to \$20 condition) less cognitive dissonance since people can [attribute their conformity to group pressure ] - minority influence- leads to conversion due to insufficient justification How does having a sense of responsibility factor into one's experience of cognitive dissonance? - Denial of responsibility is often used in place of changing of beliefs or behavior, but Is cognitive dissonance bad? - it is not inherently good or bad. **[Social Influence -- Compliance] (Bobbi)** Define and describe compliance - compliance: action that is taken only bc it has been requested - Compliance occurs when an individual alters their behavior in response to a direct request from another person or group. This change can happen even if the individual does not genuinely agree with the request or does not feel an intrinsic motivation to comply. What are compliance professionals? Examples? - individuals whose business or financial well-being is dependent on their ability to induce compliance - sales people, fundraisers, advertisers, political lobbyists, cult recruiters, conartists What do compliance techniques use to influence us? - capitalize on our tendency to respond automatically to certain cues in a persuasive message or influence situations What are the techniques of compliance?Be able to identify and describe the techniques: Reciprocity principle - gifts are met w a return gift, favors are met w return favors. (give back in the form they received) - **Description**: This principle suggests that people feel obligated to return favors or kindnesses received from others. - **Principle**: When someone does something for you, you are more likely to comply with their requests in return. - **Example**: A charity organization sends you a small gift or a free sample, which increases the likelihood that you will donate money or support their cause. - reciprocation of concessions - a negotiation tactic where one party makes very large request first then as a compromise offers a small one door-in-the-face- - **Description**: This method starts with a large request that is likely to be refused, followed by a smaller request that seems more reasonable in comparison. - **Principle**: The contrast between the two requests makes the second request seem more acceptable, and individuals may feel a sense of obligation to comply after rejecting the first request. - **Example**: Asking someone to volunteer for a month (large request), then following up by asking for just a single day of volunteering (smaller request). social validation - **Description**: This technique involves showing that many others are doing something to influence individuals to comply. - **Principle**: People tend to follow the actions of others, especially in uncertain situations, believing that if others are doing it, it must be the correct behavior. - **Example**: Advertisements showing testimonials or statistics that emphasize how many people have purchased a product can encourage others to do the same. list technique - involves asking for a request only after the target person has been shown a list of similar other who have already compiled - longer the list the greater the effect commitment/consistency - **Description**: This principle revolves around the idea that people strive for consistency in their beliefs and actions. - **Principle**: Once individuals commit to a position or action, they are more likely to comply with related requests to remain consistent with that commitment. - **Example**: A person who publicly expresses support for a cause may feel compelled to donate or participate in events related to that cause later. - four walls - used a lot to get inside someones home - **Description**: This technique involves asking a series of questions that lead the individual to a specific conclusion, making it hard for them to refuse a subsequent request without contradicting themselves. - **How It Works**: By getting the person to affirm a series of related beliefs or statements, they become psychologically \"trapped\" in a corner, feeling obligated to comply with a final request that aligns with their stated views. - **Example**: A salesperson might ask, \"Do you care about the environment? Would you like to support eco-friendly products?\" After receiving affirmative answers, they might ask for a purchase, making it difficult for the customer to say no. - bait & switch - **Description**: This tactic involves advertising a product at a low price (the bait) but then revealing that the product is unavailable and encouraging the purchase of a more expensive item (the switch). - **Principle**: This can exploit the commitment to the initial decision to lure customers into compliance with the more expensive option. - **Example**: A retailer advertises a popular item at a low price but informs customers that it is out of stock, leading them to buy a more expensive alternative. - low-ball - **Description**: This technique involves securing a commitment from an individual at a low cost, then raising the cost or changing the terms after the individual has committed. - **Principle**: Once people have made a commitment, they often feel obligated to follow through, even if the terms change. - **Example**: A car salesperson may advertise a car at a low price, but once the customer is committed to purchasing, they reveal additional fees. - legitimization of paltry favors - **Description**: This technique involves making even the smallest request appear legitimate, which encourages compliance. - **How It Works**: By framing a small favor as helpful or important, individuals feel more inclined to comply because even a small contribution is seen as valuable. - **Example**: A charity might say, \"Even a donation of \$1 can make a difference,\" encouraging people to give when they might not have otherwise. friendship/liking - **Description**: People are more likely to comply with requests made by individuals they like or feel connected to. - **How It Works**: Building rapport and fostering positive relationships increase the likelihood of compliance because individuals want to help those they like. - **Example**: A colleague might say, \"You've always been supportive; could you help me with this project?\" The established friendship increases the chance of compliance. - physical attractiveness - **Description**: This principle posits that people are more likely to comply with requests made by physically attractive individuals. - **How It Works**: The \"halo effect\" leads individuals to attribute positive traits to attractive people, making them more persuasive. attractive individuals are more persuasive both in terms of changing attitudes and getting what they requests - **Example**: Marketing campaigns often feature attractive models to sell products, leveraging the assumption that the attractiveness of the person will transfer to the product. - similarity - **Description**: Individuals are more inclined to comply with requests from those who share similar interests, beliefs, or characteristics. - **How It Works**: Similarity fosters a sense of connection and trust, making individuals more open to influence. - **Example**: A political candidate who shares similar experiences or backgrounds with voters may find it easier to gain support. - hippie vs straight experiement (asking for a dime), having a similar name - compliments - **Description**: Flattering someone can increase compliance because people are more inclined to help those who make them feel good about themselves. - **How It Works**: Compliments create positive feelings, leading to a greater likelihood of agreeing to requests.it can produce liking - **Example**: A friend might say, \"You always have such great insights; can you give me your opinion on this?\" The compliment makes the friend feel valued and more likely to assist. cooperation - **Description**: Engaging in cooperative activities or shared tasks can lead to greater compliance because it builds rapport and a sense of shared purpose. - **How It Works**: Working together fosters a collaborative environment where individuals feel more committed to mutual goals. - **Example**: Team-building exercises in a workplace can lead employees to be more willing to comply with requests from their colleagues afterward.or they can work together against a common enemy like a bad manager - physical reactance theory - **Description**: This theory suggests that when people feel their freedoms are being threatened or restricted, they may react against that perceived threat by resisting compliance and making us want them more than we did before - **How It Works**: Individuals may resist or oppose requests that they perceive as limiting their autonomy, leading to non-compliance as a form of asserting independence. - **Example**: If parents impose strict rules on a teenager, the teenager may rebel by engaging in the very behaviors their parents disapprove of. - scarcity - **Description**: This technique highlights the limited availability of a product or opportunity to encourage immediate action. when scarcity interfere w our prior access to some item, we will react against the interference by wanting and trying to possess the item more than we did before - **Principle**: The perception of scarcity can create a sense of urgency, prompting individuals to comply out of fear of missing out - **Example**: A retailer might advertise a limited-time offer or state that only a few items are left in stock to encourage quick purchases. - deadline technique - official time limit that is placed on the customers opportunity to get what is being offered - the purest form of a decision deadline- right now- occurs in a variant of the deadline technique in which customers are told unless they make an immediate purchase decision they will have to buy the item at a higher price or not be able to purchase it at all - ex: rainbow vacuum sales. seller can only sell it to you once. if you change your mind you cant get it, have to find a new seller, and pay a higher price authority - **Description**: This technique involves using the influence of authority figures to encourage compliance. - **Principle**: People are generally more likely to comply with requests from someone they perceive as an authority or expert. - **Example**: Medical professionals recommending a specific treatment often leads patients to comply with the advice because of the perceived authority of the doctor. - ex: 95% of nurses almost complied to being told to give too high of a dose of medication by an unknown doctor over the phone **[Social Influence -- Milgram -- Behavioral Study of Obedience] (Patrick)** What is obedience? - human behavior that entails a hierarchy in which one person performs according to explicit orders of an authority figure. - ex: military rank, organizational hierarchy (like government), religious affiliations Who was Milgram? - stanley milgram - an American social psychologist who conducted the famous obedience experiments in the 1960s at yale. Milgram aimed to investigate the extent to which individuals would obey an authority figure even when their command conflicted w personal conscience What is authority? What makes authority authority? What is the historical link of Milgram's study? - WWII, particularly in response to the atrocities committed during the Holocaust. It sought to understand how ordinary people could commit inhumane acts under the influence of authority. What was the procedure of Milgram's study? - "teachers" (participants giving shock) were to administer to a "student" (confederate) a paired associate task - "teachers" read a series of word pairs to the "student". students had to read the first word of the pair along with four other terms. student had to indicate which of the four terms had been paired w the first word. student received a "shock" when they got a question wrong Who were the participants in Milgram's study? - 40 males, aged 20-50 - unskilled laborer, white collar worker, CEOs, PhD holders Where did the study take place? - yale university Paid? How were they recruited? - recruited residing in the greater new haven area - recruited through advertisements offering payment for participation in a study on learning - paid \$4.50 Experimenter -- how did he look? - dressed in a lab coat, appearing authoritative and professional - biology teacher who resided in new haven area Who was the victim, and how did he come across? - the "student" confederate of the experiment, "irish american stock" who resided from the new haven area The study was supposedly about? - the deflection question " figuring out how much punishment can be used to get someone to effectively learn" Was anyone actually shocked in the study? - no Did they debrief the participants? - not until much later that it was fully debriefed What materials were used in the study? - simulated shock generator - 30 marked levers ranged from 15-40 volts increased by 15 - marked in categories from slight shock -\> danger -\> XXX (extreme shock) - record machine - contains the sound of the "learners" reactions for replay every time an electrical shock is administered What was the series of prods used? (x4) - four responses were issued by the experimenter after every protest 1. "please continue"/ "please go on" 2. "the experiment requires that you continue" 3. "it is absolutely necessary that you continue" 4. "you have no choice you must go on" a. if teachers disobeyed thent he experiment was terminated. What were the dependent variables in the study? - the level of shock the participant was willing to administer What is the point of rupture? - the point where the teacher disobeyed the experimenter and end the experiment. refuses to go on - student protest began at 300 What were the expected results according to Milgram and other psychologists? - most people would refuse to continue administering the shocks at a high level and only a small percentage would comply w the authority figure How did they zeitgeist at the time influence this expected outcome? - The social and historical context of the 1960s, particularly the atrocities of WWII and the Nuremberg Trials, influenced expectations about obedience and the moral implications of authority. People were concerned about the capacity for ordinary individuals to commit heinous acts under authoritative pressure. What were the results of the study? How did the participants behave in the study? - subject accepted the situation - they thought they were administering shocks. - 60-65% of the participants became obedient and administered the maximum shock level 450 - nervous laughing fits and smiling - sweat, trembling, self mutilation, groans - some even had seizures - What are the possible reasons for the results? - cognitive dissonance by attributing the responsibility to the authority figure - engaged followership How did individuals reduce the tension felt in the study? - rationalizing their behavior believing they were part of a experiment adn that responsibility was on the experimenter not them What are the criticisms of the study? - the way he deceived his participants - lack of full debrief until much later - lack of referral to counseling services - accused of phacking or not posting all data What are some historical examples of what Milgram studied? - the actions of the nazis in holocaust - bosnian war-- milan lukic - - adolf eichmann- " only carried out orders" - oversaw mass extermination Is the study still relevant? - Milgram's findings remain relevant in understanding authority dynamics in various contexts, including military, corporate, and organizational settings. The study continues to inform discussions about ethical behavior, compliance, and the psychology of authority. What is **engaged followership,** and how does it link to the study? - participants obey toxic instructions to the extent that they see these as necessary in order to advance a worthy cause with which they identify. - not really obedience, but they are following because they are engaged. - people questioned if it was really obedience or if this was the something else Do people actually practice obedience or is it really something else? - there is support for obedience, they thought they had to obey So are we all terrible, bad people? - no, **[Social Influence -- Asch & Conformity] (Haley)** What is social influence? - any change in an individual's thoughts, feelings, or behaviors caused by other people, who may be present or whose presence is imagine, expected or implied Define & describe conformity - a type of social influence in which someone adjusts their opinions, judgement, or actions so that they become more consistent with a) the opinion, judgments or actions of other people or B) the normative standards of a social group or situation What are some examples of conformity? - agreeing w a risky business plan bc no one spoke up - fashion trends What are the forms of social influence? be sure to understand these in the context of what we have discussed over the past several topics 1. compliance: a person changes their behavior in response to a direct request from someone 2. obedience: this involves direct orders or commands from an authority figure, (often someone perceived to have power) 3. conformity: individuals change their behavior, beliefs, or attitudes to align w a group norms or expectations. its usually unspoken and can happen consciously or unconsciously. Know & Understand Asch's Famous Line Study What was the study set-up? - one true/ native participant and 6-8 confederates - researcher: " we are doing research on visual perception" - shown a standard line and a separate series of lines - researcher " which line matches the standard line" - confederates were instructed to give a wrong answer on multiple trials - the wrong answers were obviously wrong What was found? - they responded w individuality or conformity - how many times did the member conform on average? 37% - more than 8 times? 28% - how many group members never conformed? 24% - how many made at least one error? 76% - how many individuals made at least one error when tested alone? 5% Who conformed? How much did they conform? Do people still conform today? What is the impact of a dissenter or a lack of unanimity on conformity levels? - having a dissenter decreases the unanimity (consensus) - 1 dissenter: the rate of conformity was 5-9% - this happened even if the dissenter was incorrect, but it just gave a different answer than the majority How can this information be used in your own life? - when you see something worth speaking up about, be the dissenter. other people probably think the same but are under the impression that the majority is in actual agreement What is the impact of group size on conformity? - 1 confederate conformity was around 3% - 2 confederates 12% - 3 confederates conformity jumped to 32% - you only need 3 people to feel the pressure - after 3, it plateaued. What size of a group elicits maximal conformity? - 3 What was the role of anonymity in Asch's study? - when participants could be anonymous (write answers on paper) conformity rates dropped dramatically. - anonymity responses increased individuality in participants What are some other foundational studies on conformity? - sherif's autokinetic effect experiment 1936 - light in a dark room never moved but asked to guess while in a group - zimbardos stanford prison experiment - conformed to roles quickly What are the types of conformity and when are they individually more likely to be elicited? - compliance: when someone publicly agrees w the groups opinion or behaviors but privately maintains their own beliefs (they lie) - identification: when someone conforms to the expectations of a group bc they value their membership in that group/ role (dont want to lose standing) - internalization/conversion: when someone adopts the groups beliefs or behaviors because they genuinely accept them as their own -- deepest level of conformity (cults. buying in completely) Why do people conform? -2 major social reasons (normative & informational influence. Be sure to understand both.) - normative social influence - conforming for the purpose of being accepted by society - asssociated w compliance - overt behavioral change and identification- membership or role - informational social influence - conforming to gain knowledge or due to a belief that the other person is "right" - informational information is associated with internalization: truly adopting values as their own What are some other explanations of why someone might conform? - social impact theory , culture, personality, social identity, fear of rejection, rewards and punishments How does task difficulty impact conformity? - it increased with difficulty and importance How does personality impact conformity? - participants who do not conform often have higher self esteem and self confidence. Who is more likely to conform more? - lower self esteem - lower intelligence - less independence - high self monitors - more authoritarian (values authority) personalities What is social impact theory and how does it link to conformity? - analysis of social influences that states the impact of influence depends on 1. strength - the importance or authority of the person/ group influencing you 2. immediacy- the closeness of the influencing group in terms of proximity or psychological closeness (conform for partners and friends) 3. number- the size of the influencing group How does culture link to and impact conformity levels? What is individualism? - a social or cultural tradition ideology or personal outlook that emphasizes the individual and their rights and independence - will refer to self as "funny, confident" What is collectivism? - a social or cultural tradition ideology or personal outlook that emphasizes the unity of the group or community rather than each person\'s individuality. - refer to self as "mom, student, sister" relating to others What are real world examples of the impact of conformity? - How are juries impacted? - 62% of jurors changed their mind at least once due to deliberation - 24% changed their mind **during** deliberation - over 40% of dissenters changed their minds to conform - but when a hung jury,the minority had more power Is conformity bad? - not inherently, it is a natural part of human nature and cna serve function in social order and can help us navigate complex social situations **[Social Influence -- Gender] (Brytni)** Define & describe gender - attitudes, behaviors, norms and roles that a society or culture associates w an individuals sex assigned at birth (social construct) How is it different from sex? - gender is a social construct. sex is the biological difference in reproductive anatomy What is impression management? Is it bad? - the process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them - not inherently bad. usually strategic but not deceptive why do individuals practice impression management - acceptance , advancement, safety - people are more concerned w strategic impression management when observers can influence the attainment of a desired goal when the specific goal is important and when people believe that observers have formed an impression of them that is inconsistent w their self image What are some tactics individuals use to manage their impression? - reflects the task at hand - self promotion- making excuses for failures, engaging in activities designed to convey competence - flattery- similarity to be likable - -displaying artifacts of power through their attire and accessories communicating dominance nonverbally to convey status and power to induce compliance - Who engages in the tactics more? And which ones? - men tend to engage in intimidation and self promotion - women tend to engage in modest and apologies What is social role theory? - men and women occupy different roles in society (provider, caregiver) and through these roles, they learn different skills and beliefs that relate to social behavior. they are expected to behavir differently. How does SRT color the way we see the world? - we see the world through the lens of these roles and our expectations are shaped by these roles What are gender role stereotypes? Examples? - men: seen as assertive, dominant, and less emotional ex: expected to be leader or providers (might be a reason why people are against a female president) - women: seen as nurturing, emotional, cooperative. ex: expected to be caregiver and supportive roles( women are expected to cook at home but not be a chef in a restaurant) What happens when someone engages in an impression management tactic that is outside their gender role? - they might face backlash, criticism, or social disapproval. - women will face punishment for transgressing norms, but men run the risk of having their masculinity questioned, which could put their social power and status in jeopardy. Do individuals conform to gender role expectations? - more individuals conform than dont, but men conform more than women. the ability to violate the gender role norms doesnt seem to be the same for men