PSYC Exam 4 PDF - Social Psychology & Psychology at Work

Chapters 12 and 13: Social Psychology Key Takeaways We make the fundamental attribution error when we attribute the behavior of others to a personality disposition. We demonstrate self-serving bias whenever we attribute our failures to external factors and our successes to in...

Chapters 12 and 13: Social Psychology Key Takeaways We make the fundamental attribution error when we attribute the behavior of others to a personality disposition. We demonstrate self-serving bias whenever we attribute our failures to external factors and our successes to internal factors. We show in-group favoritism whenever we perceive our group to be better than other groups, and allocate more resources and rewards to members of our in-group. Group-serving bias occurs whenever we maintain a positive evaluation of our in-group in spite of contradictory evidence. Social comparison occurs whenever we judge ourselves in comparison to others. We are more likely to like individuals who are similar to us in demographics and attitude. Physical closeness or proximity provides opportunities to cultivate a relationship. Stereotyping occurs whenever we ascribe general characteristics, motives, and behaviors to an entire group of individuals. Prejudice occurs when we base opinions about people on stereotypes of their in-group. According to the textbook, discrimination is a negative action stemming from a stereotype. An attitude influences Affect, Behavior, and Cognition. The behavior we choose to perform without extrinsic consequences reflects an attitude/value and self-persuasion. Perceive choice enhances self-persuasion and is greater when working to achieve success than when working to avoid failure. We act ourselves into consistent thinking, and we think ourselves into consistent acting. Honoring a small request increases one’s tendency to honor a larger request later (foot-in-the-door technique)  Cognitive dissonance occurs when perceiving an inconsistency between behavior and an attitude, belief, or cognition. Retreating from a large request can increase compliance for a smaller request (door-in-the-face technique). The reciprocity principle inspires pay-it-forward behavior. We conform more often than we like to admit. Descriptive norms reflect conformity but are not necessarily injunctive. We often follow authority blindly and mindlessly, but that compliance is not always undesirable behavior. Top-down authority can influence countercontrol or psychological reactance, especially in a “loose” culture. A perception of scarcity (e.g., an item with limited availability) increases perceived value. The presence of others can facilitate or impair performance depending on whether the dominant behavior is correct. Social loafing and diffusion of responsibility occur when the behavior of individuals cannot be tracked. Groupthink reflects conformity and indicates a lack of “psychological safety.” Polarization or increased commitment to a position or decision occurs when a viewpoint is challenged by another individual or group. Deindividuation occurs when one’s loyalty to a group stifles an individual’s identity and personal values. An emotional state of frustration can incite aggressive behavior. The bystander effect is fueled by deindividuation and diffusion of responsibility. The larger the group the less likely will any one person actively care. Five person-states increase the probability of AC4P behavior—self-efficacy, personal control, self-esteem, belongingness, and optimism.  The AC4P STEP process—See, Thank, Enter, and Pass Social Cognition and Attribution 1. Social Cognitive Biases - Fundamental Attribution Error: tendency to attribute others’ behavior to internal factors (personality) rather than situational factors - Self-serving bias: attributing successes to oneself (internal factors) and failures to external factors (Fundamental = F = Failure) (Self-serving = S = Success) 2. Group Membership and Attribution - In-Group Bias and Favoritism: preferring and valuing one’s own group over others, often leading to unequal resource distribution (think highschool) - Group-serving bias: positive evaluations for one’s group, even with contradictory evidence (think Ariana, evidence of bad but proceed to defend) - Social Comparison: judging oneself in comparison to others - Proximity and similarity: we tend to like people who are physically close and similar to us 3. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination - Stereotypes: generalized beliefs about a group - Prejudice: preconceived opinions based on stereotypes - Discrimination: negative actions influenced by prejudice Attribution and Attitude (ABC) 1. ABC Components - Affective: feelings/emotions toward an object (affection towards something) - Behavioral: intentions to act in certain ways - Cognitive: beliefs or thoughts  2. Peripheral vs Central Route - Peripheral route: uses superficial cues (attractiveness, emotions, or endorsements) (ex: they look sad so their sad) - Central route: uses logic, facts and strong arguments (ex: there grandma passed away so we can assume their sad) Social Influence Principles 1. Consistency - resist change - Value commitment - Act to align with their beliefs 2. Reciprocity - Returning favors - Increased compliance after a retreating 3. Ingratiation - Attraction through similarities, cooperation, and praise 4. Conformity - Modeling behavior based on social norms - Especially in unfamiliar settings 5. Authority - Obedience to perceived credible authorities - Example: Stanley Milgram’s Shock Experiment 6. Scarcity - Valuing rare opportunities - Motivated to avoid loss  7. Novelty - Preference for unique and novel items over routine Consistency and Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance - Psychological discomfort from holding contradictory beliefs or behaviors - Example: smoking despite known health risks Self-Perception Theory - Inferring attitudes by observing one’s behavior Foot-in-the-Door - Agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger one Door-in-the-Face - Declining a large request may increase compliance to a smaller one Conformity and Authority Studies Stanley Milgram (1963) - Obedience to authority in a simulated shock experiment Philip Zimbardo (1971) - Stanford Prison Study - The effects of perceived roles and authority Group Behavior 1. Social Facilitation/Inhibition - Enhanced performance on simple tasks in the presence of others - Hindered performance on complex tasks in the presence of others 2. Social Loafing  - Reduced effort in group tasks when individual contributions are less identifiable (Think bio lab presentation) 3. Groupthink - Tendency for cohesive groups to suppress dissenting opinions - Reduces critical analysis 4. Polarization - Tendency of group discussions to strengthen dominant viewpoints 5. Deindividualization - Loss of self-awareness and increased impulsive behavior in groups Aggression Frustration-aggression hypothesis - Frustration can lead to aggression - Particularly when one’s goals are blocked Altruism 1. Bystander Effect - Decreased likelihood of helping in emergencies when others are present 2. Diffusion of Responsibility - Belief that others will intervene - Leading to reduced personal responsibility 3. Actively Caring for People influenced by - Self-efficacy: confidence in one’s ability to help - Personal control: feeling empowered - Self-esteem: positive self-evaluation - Belongingness: connection to others - Optimism: expectation of positive outcomes  Chapter 14: Psychology at Work Key Takeaways Flow experiences are supported by intrinsic positive reinforcers. Personnel or industrial psychologists aid the selection of the Best employees; organizational psychologists aid the cultivation of a most productive work culture. The Big 5 personality traits reflect tightness (conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability), or looseness (openness and extroversion). Interviewers display the interviewer illusion when they are Over confident in their ability to select employees with Their unstructured interviews. Structured interviews or more predictive of job success and Use the same job-relevant questions for all applicants.  Performance appraisals are vulnerable to halo, leniency, recency, attributional, affective, stereotyping, and contrast biases. 360-degree feedback is most effective but not efficient. Empowerment is determined by self-efficacy (training), response efficacy (education), and outcome-expectancy (motivation). SMARTS goals are Specific, Motivational, Achievable, Relevant, Trackable, and Shared. The degree of direction and motivation needed by an Employee determines whether leaders should delegate, instruct, support, or coach. Transactional leaders manage behavior; transformational leaders inspire self-motivation. Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is AC4P behavior in the workplace. Human factors psychologists contribute to making Appliances, machines, and work settings safe and user-friendly. Behavior-based safety (BBS) applies Behavioral observation and feedback(BOF) to keep workers injury-free. Effective Occupational Safety Requires the involvement of all employees in reporting environmental hazards, close calls, and minor injuries. “Injury analyses” should replace “accident investigations.” Purposeful Work Work that aligns with personal values, goals, and a sense of contribution, leading to satisfaction and motivation 1. Flow & Intrinsic Rewards Flow: a state of deep immersion and engagement in activity, characterized by focused attention and a sense of control (occurs when challenges match one’s skills) Intrinsic rewards: satisfaction derived from the activity itself (eg. enjoyment, mastery) 2. Knowledge at Work - Focus on roles requiring cognitive tasks such as analysis, problem-solving, and decision-making, increasingly relevant in modern workplaces Personnel Psychology (Industrial) 1. Matching an Individual’s strengths with work - Aligning skills, personality, and interests with job roles increases productivity and job satisfaction 2. The Big 5 - OCEAN  Openness: creativity and openness to new experiences Conscientiousness: organization and dependability Extraversion: sociability and energy Agreeableness: cooperation and compassion Neuroticism: emotional stability (lower neuroticism=higher stability) 3. Selection by Interviews Structured interviews: predefined, job-relevant questions (better at predicting performance) Unstructured interviews: informal and conversational (subject to biases) 4. Performance Appraisals Biases 1. Halo Effect: initial positive impressions influence subsequent evaluations 2. Leniency: overly positive ratings to avoid confrontation 3. Recency Effect: overemphasis on recent performance 4. Contrast Effect: comparisons with other employees rather than job criteria 360-Degree Feedback - Comprehensive evaluations from peers, subordinates, and supervisors - Enhances accuracy but can be time-consuming Organizational Psychology 1. Job Satisfaction vs. Burnout Job satisfaction: positive feelings about one’s job (increases productivity Burnout: chronic stress leading to emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced efficacy 2. The Gallup Workplace Questionnaire - Measures workplace satisfaction and engagement with questions about recognition, purpose, and growth opportunities 3. Goal Setting Smart Goals: challenging yet achievable goals improve motivation and focus Specific Measurable Achievable Relevant Trackable 4. Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership Transactional leaders: focus on structure, rewards, and task completion  Transformational leaders: inspire and motivate employees to exceed expectations through vision and personal growth 5. Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) - Voluntary behaviors that improve organizational effectiveness, such as helping coworkers or promoting a positive workplace culture 6. Human Factors Engineering - Designing tools, machines, and environments to optimize safety, comfort, and performance - Ergonomic keyboards - User-friendly controls - Layouts Chapter 15: Leadership Discrimination is good; stereotyping is bad. Synergy is facilitated by diversity, empathy, and interdependency. Empathy enables the Platinum Rule—Treat others the way They want to be treated. Leaders show humility by admitting their mistakes and asking For feedback. Five types of conversation progress from the past to the future—relationship, possibility, action, opportunity, and Follow-up conversations. Systems thinking benefits creativity, productivity, problem Solving, mental health, and SWB. Tight versus loose cultures influence attitudes, Behavior, health, and happiness. Tight or stable personalities reflect Conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability. Loose or plasticity personalities reflect Extraversion and openness. Leaders promote and support psychological safety. People feel psychologically safe when they feel Included, continuously learn and contribute to an organization, and can challenge the status Key Distinctions Between Leadership and Management 1. Accountability - Managers ensure people are accountable - Leaders inspire self-accountability 2. Approach - Managers “do things right” - Leaders “do the right thing” Leadership Styles 1. Transformational Leadership - Inspires and motivates beyond expectations - Promotes ownership rather than compliance - Shapes conversations from past to future to present 2. Transactional leadership - Focuses on structure, rewards, and clear task goals Characteristics of Effective Leaders 1. Promote Synergy - Foster teamwork and diversity 2. Demonstrate Emotional Intelligence - Defined as the ability to recognize and manage emotions in oneself and others 3. Admit Vulnerability - Encourage open feedback and admit mistakes 4. Celebrate Uniqueness - Capitalize on individuals’ strengths Psychological Safety Feeling safe to speak up, take risks, and challenge the status quo without fear Levels of Safety 1. Inclusion safety: feeling accepted 2. Learner safety: feeling safe to ask questions and make mistakes 3. Contributor safety: feeling valued for input 4. Challenger safety: feeling free to challenge ideas Cultural Perspectives 1. Individualistic - Emphasize personal achievement  - “He travels fastest who travels alone” 2. Collectivist - Value harmony and group success - “Still waters run deep” 3. Tight - Emphasize stability and structure - Conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability 4. Loose - Embrace flexibility and openness - openness and extraversion Takeaways for Leadership 1. The Platinum Rule - Treat others the way they want to be treated 2. Effective Communication - Leaders move conversations through five stages - Relationship⇒Possibility⇒Action⇒Opportunity⇒Follow-up 3. Learning Culture - Leaders promote self-motivation and strive for meaningful work Chapter 16 and 17: Sustainability Key Takeaways  Applied and Psychological science includes four steps: selection, intervention, evaluation, and dissemination. The selection and dissemination steps of applied Psychology need improvement. Environmentally responsible behavior(ERB) is efficient or repetitive. Applied behavioral scientists Define behavior(s) to target, Observe occurrences of the target behavior(s) to collect baseline data, Intervene to Influence the target behavior(s), and then Test to determine if the intervention was effective. The ABC process includes an activator(Feedforward), Behavior, and consequence (feedback). The most effective prompts include a rationale for the desirable behavior. Simple changes in the design of trash receptacles can increase occurrences of ERB. “Sustainable behavior” includes technology choice and behavioral choice. A nudge bypasses behavioral choice and makes ERB easy or the default option. Prompts remind individuals of the desirable behavior (e.g., ERB). Environmental Psychology Examines the interaction between humans and their physical environment - Subfield: conservation psychology - Focused on promoting sustainable behaviors and conserving natural resources Sustainable Behavior 1. Environmentally Responsible Behavior (ERB) - Actions contributing to environmental conservation and sustainability 2. Curtailment Behavior - Reducing resource use (eg turning off lights) 3. Behavioral vs. Technological Choice Behavioral: actions like recycling or walking Technology: using sustainable technology (eg solar panels) 4. Commons Dilemma  - Conflict between individual benefit and collective resource conservation 5. Key Components Interdependence: recognizing shared environmental impact Shared Goals: aligning individual and collective objectives Trust: building cooperation for sustainability Influencing ERB 1. Nudges, Prompts, Incentives, Feedback Nudges: subtle changes making sustainable actions easier Prompts: reminders for actions (eg recycling signs) Incentives: rewards for eco-friendly behaviors Feedback: information on the impact of actions 2. Norms Descriptive norms: what others are doing Injunctive norms: what is socially approved 3. Motivation Intrinsic (Values): acting based on personal commitment Extrinsic (Incentives): acting for external rewards 4. Emotions and Self-Efficacy - Emotional appeal enhances engagement - Self-efficacy boosts belief in one’s ability to make a difference 5. Other Influences Collective Guilt: feeling responsible for environmental harm Empathy Nudge: considering others’ well-being Identity: social labels (“environmental advocate”) and self-labels (personal commitment to being eco-conscious Spillover Effect: sustainable behavior in one area leads to similar behaviors elsewhere Environmental Attitudes 1. Nature (biophilia) vs. Nurture (learning) - Innate love for nature vs. learned environmental behaviors 2. Environmental Risk Perceptions Temporal Discounting: prioritizing immediate benefits over future risks Denial: ignoring environmental threats 3. Effective Messaging  - Self Efficacy vs. Defensive Justification - Empowerment over excuses - Gaining Success vs. Avoiding Failure - Positive framing for motivation - Norms - Use descriptive and injunctive norms to guide behavior Environment and Health 1. Negative Effects - Natural disasters and climate change disrupt well-being 2. Positive Effects - Living near green spaces improves mood and social connections 3. Sustainable Behavior and Well-Being - ERB fosters happiness, purpose, and meaning Sustainable Communities 1. Green Buildings - Enhance energy efficiency and promote health - Solar energy, water recycling systems 2. Community Design - Encouraging walkability, cycling paths, and shared spaces Chapter 18: 7 Life Lessons Key Takeaways Humanistic behaviorism integrates principles taught by behaviorist BF Skinner and humanist W Edwards Deming. Positive psychology includes principles taught by humanist Abraham Maslow, and was founded by Martin Seligman who initiated the positive psychology movement in 1998. Barack Obama initiated an executive order in 2015 that connects applied behavioral science with federal programs and policies. Reward effort—a growth mindset, and not ability—a fixed mindset. Success seekers are happier and more self-motivated than failure avoiders.  Intrinsic consequences are self-reinforcing and enable flow. Lecture 12 Takeaways (Chapter 18) To perform better at a particular task, watch someone who performs that task better than you. Feedforward is an activator, and Feedback is a Consequence. Everyone can benefit from a behavioral COACH. Feedback has negative connotations because people give more corrective than supportive feedback. The platinum rule is better than the golden rule, requires empathy. True empowerment requires three beliefs—self-efficacy, response-efficacy, and outcome expectancy. SMARTS goals are empowering. All behavior is other-directed, self -directed, or habitual. Self-motivation is fueled by perceptions of choice, competence, and community. The top of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is self-transcendence, and it fuels all other higher-order needs. AC4P behavior is fueled by an interdependent mindset. The VT Center for Applied Behavior Systems (CABS) studies ways to increase occurrences of AC4P behavior on a large scale. The AC4P Movement is needed now more than ever before. Humanistic Behaviorism & Actively Caring Integrates behavioral principles with a humanistic approach to emphasize care for others 1. A Brother’s/Sister’s Keeper Culture - Promotes personal accountability for others’ safety and well-being - Encourages fostering a supportive and altruistic community Lesson 1: Employ More Positive Consequences  1. Impact of positive vs. negative consequences - Positive consequences are more effective for improving behavior and attitude - Immediate, frequent, and behavior-based rewards are most impactful 2. Counter control for personal control - Avoid rigid control through negative consequences to reduce resistance or countercontrol 3. Success Seeker vs. Failure Avoider Success Seeker: motivated by achievements and growth Failure Avoiders: focus on preventing failure, which may limit risk-taking and growth Lesson 2: Benefit from Observational Learning 1. Vicarious reinforcement - Learning by observing others being rewarded for their actions 2. Vicarious punishment - Learning by observing others being punished, leads to behavior avoidance Lesson 3: Improve with Feedforward & Feedback 1. COACH & the ABC Model Care, Observe, Analyze, Communicate, Help Activator ⇒ Behavior ⇒ Consequence a. Feedforward: provides guidance or direction before an action is performed (activator) b. Feedback: provides information on past behavior 2. Delivery of feedforward and feedback a. Specific, On Time, Appropriate, Real Lesson 4: Use More Supportive Feedback 1. Delivering Supportive Feedback - Be timely - Make it personal - Take it to a higher level - Deliver it privately - Let it sink in - Use tangibles for symbolic value - Consider secondhand recognition  2. Accepting Supportive Feedback - Don’t deny or disclaim - Listen actively - Use it later for self-motivation - Show sincere appreciation - Reward the recognizer - Ask for recognition Lesson 5: Embrace and Practice Empathy 1. Empathic AC4P Listening - Repeat, Rephrase, Ratify, Reflect - Ask questions first - Five levels of listening 1. Ignore: pretending not to hear 2. Pretend: minimal engagement 3. Selective: picking and choosing what to focus on 4. Attentive: fully focused on the speaker 5. Empathic: connecting with the speaker on an emotional level Lesson 6: Manage Behavior and Lead People 1. Self-Motivation Driven by perceptions of - Choice: autonomy in actions - Competence: belief in one’s abilities - Community: feeling connected to others Participative Management: involves employees in decision-making to increase engagement 2. Empowerment - Self-Efficacy: belief in one’s ability to perform tasks - Response-Efficacy: confidence that actions will lead to desired outcomes - Outcome Expectancy: belief that the effort is worth the reward - SMARTS Goal Setting & Empowerment - Specific - Motivational - Achievement - Relevant - Trackable - Shared Lesson 7: From Self-Actualization to Self-Transcendence 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - Self-Actualization: achieving one’s full potential - Self-Transcendence: achieving fulfillment through contributing to others 2. Independence vs. Interdependence - Interdependence fosters collective well-being and encourages mutual accountability 3. The STEP Process - Encourages recognizing and reinforcing Actively Caring for People (AC4P) behaviors See: identify acts of kindness Thank: express gratitude for the actions Enter: pass on the recognition through tangible items like wristbands Pass: encourage others to continue the process 4. Impact of Feedforward - Principle of Reciprocity: acts of kindness encourage others to act - Principle of Consistency: reinforces caring behaviors