Qualitative Research PDF

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH  2 OVERVIEW Sampling and data Qualitative designs collection in and approaches qualitative studies T...

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH  2 OVERVIEW Sampling and data Qualitative designs collection in and approaches qualitative studies Trustworthiness and Analysis of qualitative integrity in data Qualitative Treatment QUALITATIVE DESIGNS AND APPROACHES  4 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN Emergent Flexible & adjustable during data collection Involve triangulating data collection strategies Holistic - strives understanding of the whole Researchers intensely involved & reflexive - requires a lot of time. Ongoing data analysis to guide subsequent strategies Woo, 2018  5 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TRADITIONS Grounded Ethnography Phenomenology Others theory Descriptive Interpretive Woo, 2018  6 ETHNOGRAPHY Describes and interprets culture and cultural behavior. Relies on extensive, labor-intensive fieldwork. Culture is inferred from words & actions of members. There is an assumption that culture guides the way people structure experiences. Seeks emic perspective (insider view) of culture to reveal tacit knowledge, or information that is deeply embedded in culture. Relies on range of data sources and three broad types of information Cultural behavior (what members of the culture do). Cultural artifacts (what members make and use). Cultural speech (what they say). Participant observation an important source observe the culture under study while participating in its activities.  PHENOMENOLOGY 7 Descriptive Interpretive phenomenology phenomenology Understanding people’s everyday life experiences. What is the essence of a phenomenon as it is experienced by people, and what does it mean? Truths about reality are grounded in people’s lived experiences Acknowledges people’s physical ties to their world Woo, 2018  8 DESCRIPTIVE PHENOMENOLOGY Based on philosophy of Husserl “What do we know as persons? Describes human experience Portrayal of conscious experience of everyday life May involve maintaining a reflexive journal Woo, 2018  PHASES OF DESCRIPTIVE 9 PHENOMENOLOGY 1 2 3 4 Bracketing: Intuiting: when Analyzing: Describing: process of researchers extracting defining the identifying and remain open to significant phenomenon. holding in statements, meanings preconceived categorizing, and beliefs and attributed to making sense of opinions about phenomenon essential phenomenon by those who meanings. under study. experienced it. Woo, 2018  10 INTERPRETIVE PHENOMENOLOGY Based on philosophy of Heidegger Hermeneutics (understanding) is a basic characteristic of human existence. Relies on in-depth interviews and supplementary data sources Woo, 2018  GROUNDED THEORY Glaser and Strauss Number of theoretical roots Symbolic interaction: how people make sense of social interactions Account for people’s actions from the perspective of those involved Contributed to development of middle-range theories Woo, 2018  12 GROUNDED THEORY METHODS In-depth interviews with 20 to 30 The research problem is Data collection, data analysis, people; may be supplemented with uncovered during the and sampling occur observations, written documents. research process. simultaneously. Woo, 2018  13 DESCRIPTIVE QUALITATIVE STUDIES Mix of different designs and methods, Holistically describes phenomena as perceived by people who experience them Researchers may say they did content analysis of narrative data with intent of understanding important themes and patterns Woo, 2018  14 OTHER Case studies QUALITATIVE Focus on description and explanation Can be individuals, families, groups, organizations, or communities RESEARCH Data collected over extended period Narrative analysis Analyzing stories people tell about their experiences Numerous approaches to analyzing texts Feminist research Focuses on how gender domination and discrimination shape women’s lives and consciousness Participatory action research (PAR) Produces knowledge through close collaboration with groups or communities vulnerable to control or oppression Woo, 2018 SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH  SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE 16 RESEARCH Sample quality is important Selection of sample is guided by desire for information-rich data sources Goal is to discover meaning and uncover multiple realities - not to generalize to a population “Representativeness” not a key issue Random selection not considered productive Woo, 2018 TYPES OF QUALITATIVE 17 SAMPLING Snowball sampling Convenience (network sampling): (volunteer) sampling; sample might be not preferred restricted to small approach but network of economical acquaintances Purposive sampling: Theoretical researchers sampling: decisions deliberately choose about where to find the cases that will data to develop best contribute to the emerging theory study optimally Woo, 2018  18 SAMPLE SIZE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH No explicit, formal criteria Sample size determined by informational needs Decisions to stop sampling guided by data saturation Data quality can affect sample size Woo, 2018  19 SAMPLING IN ETHNOGRAPHY Mingling with many members of the culture—a “big net” approach Informal conversations with 25 to 50 informants Multiple interviews with smaller number of key informants Typically involves sampling things as well as people Woo, 2018  20 SAMPLING IN PHENOMENOLOGY Relies on very small samples (often 10 or fewer) Two principles guide sample selection 1. Participants have experienced phenomenon of interest 2. Able to articulate what it is like to have lived that experience May sample artistic or literary sources Woo, 2018  21 SAMPLING IN GROUNDED THEORY Selection of participants who can best contribute Typically involves samples to emerging theory of 20 to 30 people (usually theoretical sampling) Woo, 2018  22 DATA COLLECTION IN QUALITATIVE STUDIES Data collection methods may change as study progresses. Self report and observation are common data collection methods. Woo, 2018  23 QUALITATIVE SELF-REPORT TECHNIQUES Unstructured Semi structured Focus group Diaries Photo elicitation interviews interviews interviews Conversational, Use of a topic Interviews in Source in Interview totally flexible guide small groups (5 historical stimulated and Use of grand to 10 people) research guided by tour questions Led by a Provide photographic moderator intimate detail images of everyday life Photovoice: asking participants to take photos themselves and interpret them Woo, 2018  24 UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATIONAL METHODS The aim of qualitative observation is to understand the behaviors and experiences of people in naturalistic settings. Excellent method for capturing many clinical phenomena and behaviors. Potential problem of reactivity when people are aware they are being observed. Risk of observational biases—factors that can interfere with objective observation. Woo, 2018  25 PARTICIPANT RECORDING OBSERVATION OBSERVATIONS Participant observation is prolonged periods A log or field diary of social interaction between researchers and Daily record of events and conversations participants. Field notes Broder and more interpretive Descriptive (observational) notes: objective descriptions of events and conversations that were observed. Reflective notes: document researchers personal experiences, reflections, etc. Woo, 2018 ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA  27 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS Qualitative analysis is a way of looking at non-numerical data, like words, stories, or observations, to find patterns, themes, and meanings Qualitative analyst must be skillful in identifying patterns and putting them together into an integrated whole Woo, 2018  28 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS CHALLENGES No universal rules: no one set way to do analysis. Voluminous amount of narrative data: lots of intensive work. Need for strong inductive powers and creativity: identify patterns and put them together. Condensing rich data to fit into concise reports. Woo, 2018  29 DATA MANAGEMENT DEVELOPING CODING THE IDENTIFYING INTERPRETING REPORTING THE CODING SCHEME DATA THEMES THE DATA FINDINGS Woo, 2018  30 DATA ORGANIZATION Computerized Manual methods methods of of organization organization Woo, 2018  31 CONTENT ANALYSIS Analyze Break down Code and name Group Analyze content of Break down data into Code and name units Group coded material narrative data to smaller units according to content based on shared identify prominent content themes and patterns among themes Woo, 2018  32 ETHNOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS SPRADLEY’S 12-STEP METHOD 1. Locate informant 2. Interview informant 3. Make ethnographic record 4. Ask descriptive questions 5. Analyze ethnographic interviews 6. Making domain analysis (first level of analysis) 7. Ask structural questions 8. Make taxonomic analysis (second level) 9. Ask contrast questions 10. Make componential analysis (third level) 11. Discover cultural themes, theme analysis (fourth level) 12. Write ethnography Woo, 2018  33 PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS Three broad schools of phenomenology Duquesne School (descriptive) Colaizzi / Giorgi / Van Kaam Utrecht School (descriptive & interpretive) Van Manen Heideggerian hermeneutics (interpretive) Gadamer / Diekelmann, Allen, & Tanner / Benner Woo, 2018  34 VAN MANEN’S PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD Turning to the nature of the lived experience Exploring the experience as we live it Reflecting on essential themes Describing the phenomenon through the art of writing and rewriting Maintaining a strong relation to the phenomenon Balancing the research context by considering parts and whole Woo, 2018  35 GROUNDED 3 analytic approaches: Glaser, Strauss, and Charmaz THEORY ANALYSIS Glaser and Strauss Theory is discovered from data separate from the researcher Charmaz: Constructivist grounded theory approach Theories include researchers’ experience and involvements Grounded theory in all 3 analytic systems use constant comparison The purpose of grounded theory is to understand a central concern or core variable – it is the central focus around which the theory is built Woo, 2018 TRUSTWORTHINESS AND INTEGRITY IN QUALITATIVE TREATMENT  37 DEBATES ABOUT RIGOR AND VALIDITY MAJOR DISPUTE INVOLVED WHETHER “VALIDITY” AND “RIGOR” ARE APPROPRIATE FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH. SOME REJECT THESE TERMS AND CONCEPTS TOTALLY, SOME THINK THEY ARE APPROPRIATE, AND OTHERS HAVE SEARCHED FOR PARALLEL GOALS. Woo, 2018  38 TERMINOLOGY PROLIFERATION AND CONFUSION No common vocabulary exists Truth value Integrity Trustworthiness Validity and rigor Woo, 2018  39 LINCOLN & GUBA’S “Gold standard” FRAMEWORK Key goal: trustworthiness Encompasses four criteria Credibility Dependability Confirmability Transferability Woo, 2018  40 TRUSTWORTHINESS CRITERIA Credibility Dependability Confirmability Transferability Authenticity Refers to confidence in Refers to stability of Objectivity - potential for Extent which Extent to which truth of data and data over time and congruence between two qualitative findings researchers fairly and interpretations of them or more independent faithfully show range of conditions can be transferred to people about data different realities and accuracy, relevance, or other settings or convey feeling/tone of Analog of internal meaning groups participants’ lives as lived validity in quantitative Analog of reliability research in quantitative research Analog of objectivity in Analog of No analog in quantitative quantitative research research Arguably most important generalizability or criterion for assessing external validity in quality and integrity of Ensures the findings quantitative research Added to Lincoln & qualitative inquiry reflect what participants Guba’s framework at later said, not the researcher’s date bias Woo, 2018  41 STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE QUALITY Prolonged engagement Persistent observation Reflexivity strategies Comprehensive and vivid recording of information: Audit trail Member checking Data triangulation: use of multiple data sources to validate conclusions Method triangulation: use of multiple methods of data collection to study same phenomenon (e.g., self-report, observation Woo, 2018  42 THANK YOU!