Module 1 - Introduction to Field Methods in Psychology.pdf

1  2 Overview of Field Methods in Psychology _________ Course Title : Field Methods in Psychology Course Code : PSY3102 Pre-requisite : Experimental Psychology Unit/s...

1  2 Overview of Field Methods in Psychology _________ Course Title : Field Methods in Psychology Course Code : PSY3102 Pre-requisite : Experimental Psychology Unit/s : 5 units (3 hours lecture + 6 hours laboratory) Course Description: This 5.0 unit course introduces student to quantitative and qualitative methods research in Psychology with more emphasis or focus on qualitative research. The course will also cover the theory and epistemology of these types of research methods as well as equip students with knowledge and skills in designing and administering surveys, interviews and focus group discussions. At the end of the course students are expected to produce a qualitative research paper. Course Content Lecture Laboratory I. Introduction to Field Methods in Psychology 1. Nature and Overview of Field Methods in Psychology 2. Epistemology 3. Positivism I. Introduction to Field Methods in Psychology 4. Empiricism 1. Defining Field Research in Psychology 5. Hypothetico-deductivism 6. Critique of the ‘scientifific method’ 7. Feminist critique of established epistemologies 8. Social constructionism 9. Epistemology and methodology II. Ethics in Research 1. Research Ethics 2. Ethical Guidelines for Mental Health II. Ethics in Research Research: Ethical Guidelines for Vulnerable 1. Ethical Guidelines for Vulnerable Group: Group: Minors/Children, Older Person, People 2. Unethical Research Experiment Living with HIV, People With Disabilities, Uniformed Personnel, and Indigenous Peoples 3. KLD Informed Consent Form III. Quantitative Research 1. The Scientific Method a) Defining the Problem and Stating a Hypothesis III. Quantitative Research b) Choosing and Implementing a Method 1. Parts of Quantitative Research  3 2. Descriptive Research a) Evaluating Descriptive Research 3. Correlational Study a) Measuring the Relationship between Variables b) Selecting a Sample c) Evaluating correlational study 4. Experimental Studies a) Human Laboratory Studies b) Single-case Experimental Design c) Animal Studies IV. Psychological Tests: Their Use and Construction 1. The concept of a scale a) Scale construction b) Item analysis or factor analysis? IV. Psychological Tests: Their Use and c) Other considerations in test Construction construction 1. The concept of a scale 2. Reliability and Validity: Evaluating the value Reliability and Validity of tests and measures a) Reliability of measures b) Validity c) Types of validity V. Clinical/Assessment Interview V. Clinical/Assessment Interview 1. The Interviewer 1. Types of Clinical Interview: Structured, 2. Components of Interview Unstructured, Semi Structured, Focus Group 3. Pragmatics of the Interview Interview, 4. Types of Interview 2. Interview Design 5. Components of Interview VI. Qualitative Research 1. General principles of qualitative research design 2. The research question VI. Qualitative Research 3. Choosing the ‘right’ method 1. Parts of Qualitative Research 4. Semi-structured interviewing 5. Participant observation 6. Diaries 7. Focus group VII. Phenomenological methods 1. Phenomenology 2. The phenomenological method VII. The Research Paper - 3. Phenomenology and psychology Chapter I: Introduction a) Descriptive phenomenology Chapter II: Review of Related Literature b) Interpretative phenomenology  4 4. Interpretative phenomenological analysis a) Doing interpretative phenomenological analysis b) Analysis of an individual case 5. Worked example 6. Integration of cases 7. Interpretation 8. Writing up 9. An example of interpretative phenomenological analysis 10. Limitations of interpretative phenomenological analysis VIII. Grounded theory 1. Basic principles of grounded theory a) An example of grounded theory b) Versions of grounded theory c) Limitations of grounded theory as a method for psychological research VIII. The Research Paper IX. Case studies Chapter III: Methodology 1. Research methods for psychological case studies 2. Types of design for case study research 3. Procedural issues 4. An example of case study research 5. Limitations of case study research X. Discursive psychology 1. The ‘turn to language’ 2. Discursive psychology and Foucauldian discourse analysis 3. Discursive psychology 4. An example of discourse analysis 5. Limitations of discursive psychology IX. The Research Paper - Interview Tools XI. Foucauldian discourse analysis 1. Survey Form 1. Selecting texts for analysis 2. Guide Questions 2. Procedural guidelines for the analysis of discourse 3. An illustration of the application of the six stages to an 4. interview extract 5. Limitations of Foucauldian discourse analysis  5 XII. Working with memories 1. Narrative psychology a) Memory work b) Why memories? c) Data collection and analysis d) ‘Saying sorry’: an example of data analysis in memory work e) Limitations of memory work X. The Research Paper - Chapter IV: Results and Presentation of Data XIII. Quality in qualitative research Chapter V. Discussion, Conclusion, and 1. What constitutes ‘good’ qualitative Recommendation research? a) Epistemology and evaluation XI. Research Consultation and Presentation b) Evaluation of the methods introduced in this book c) Some caveats d) Opportunities and limitations in qualitative research e) A word about technology ‘What’ and ‘how’ Course Requirement/Output Lecture Laboratory 1. Performance Task: Individual/Group Activity, and Article Analysis 1. 15 Research Worksheets 2. (4) Long Quizzes 2. Student presentation 3. Class Participation (Recitation/Seatwork) 3. Class Participation (Recitation/Seatwork) 4. Major Exams: Midterm, and Final 4. Research Paper Examinations FLEXIBLE LEARNING POLICIES I. Attendance Policy a) Reasons for Excused absences – sickness / death of the student and immediate family members, force majeure (emergency-related incidences), and other approved absences by the department. b) For missed onsite laboratory activities, students will not merit any points in the said activity if they are absent. c) For late attendance beyond the first 30 minutes of the laboratory class, students will merit 90% of the intended score of the student. d) Students who failed to submit within the stipulated deadline without approved absence, will automatically get 0.0 in the activity. e) For approved absences or late submissions, students will merit 90% of the intended score in the activity if they have complied within one (1) week.  6 II. Intellectual Property Policy a) Policy and copyright infringement will not be tolerated. Any violation of such will earn students a grade of zero in the assessment. b) Students are encouraged to use their original photos, videos, and other resources. Otherwise, students can use royalty-free resources or embed the sources in their submissions to avoid copyright infringement and/or plagiarism. Any violations will result in appropriate disciplinary action. III. Other Policies a) Activities must be submitted 7 days after the experiment. All assignments and projects must be submitted by specified deadlines. b) Attire - students must wear the prescribed uniform of the college and must follow proper and decent attire advised by the Student Handbook. c) Proper laboratory attire must be worn during every laboratory experiment, otherwise, students will not be allowed to perform the scheduled lab activity. d) Cheating will not be tolerated. Refer to policies of cheating from the Student Handbook e) Communication - Students should actively engage in course-related discussions and raise questions or concerns promptly. Communication with the instructor can be done during consultation hours. f) Technology - The use of electronic devices during lectures should be limited to course-related activities only References: Cohen, R. J., Swerdlik, M, E., (2023) Psychological Testing and Assessment: An Introduction to Tools and Measurement Creswell, J.W. & Creswell, J.D. (2018) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Gravetter, F. J. & Forzano, L. B. (2018). Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 6th ed. Howitt, D. (2016). Introduction to Qualitative Methods in Psychology, 3rd Edition Passer, M. W. (2014). Research Methods: Concepts and Connections. Philippine Health Research Ethics Board, Ad Hoc Committee For Updating The National Ethical Guidelines. (2022) National Ethical Guidelines For Research Involving Human Participants Pomeranz, A. M. (2020) Clinical Psychology: Science, Practice, and Diversity, 5th edition Willig, C. (2013). Introducing Qualitative Research in Psychology 3rd ed  7 Introduction to Field Methods in Psychology ______ Epistemology Epistemology is a philosophical discipline that focuses on the study of knowledge theory. It seeks to offer solutions to the inquiry: In what manner and to what extent may we acquire knowledge?' This entails contemplating the essence of knowledge itself, its extent, and the credibility and dependability of assertions regarding knowledge. Research methods offer systematic approaches to address and, ideally, resolve our research inquiries. Research techniques can be defined as the systematic approaches used to achieve a specific objective (Kvale 1996a: 278). Positivism Positivism is an epistemic stance. Positivism posits that there exists a direct correlation between the external world (consisting of things, events, and phenomena) and our perception and comprehension of it. Positivists maintain that it is feasible to accurately depict the objective reality that exists independently of our perceptions. This position is commonly known as the correspondence theory of truth because it proposes that phenomena directly shape our perception of them, establishing a direct correspondence between objects and their representation. Kirk and Miller (1986: 14) define positivism as the belief that the external reality determines the sole true perspective on it, regardless of the procedure or circumstances of observation. A positivist epistemology posits that the aim of research is to generate objective knowledge. This means that the understanding obtained is impartial and unbiased, as it is based on an external perspective without the researcher's personal participation or vested interests. Empiricism Empiricism and positivism are intimately interconnected. The premise of this argument is that our understanding of the world should be obtained from empirical evidence. To clarify, sense perception serves as the foundation for acquiring knowledge, which is achieved by methodically gathering and categorizing data. These encompass scientific trials or tests.  8 According to this perspective, basic observations are synthesized to generate more intricate concepts, and theory emerges from these observations. In other words, theory is constructed in order to interpret the evidence gathered through observation. Currently, very few scientists and researchers adhere to a strict type of empiricism. It is well acknowledged that sense perception does not offer immediate and untainted access to objective reality. Our level of knowledge about a thing directly correlates with the level of detail we are able to see when observing it. Perception is inherently selective, and individuals can be educated to perceive the same phenomenon in varying ways, contingent upon the objective of the observation. Nevertheless, contemporary empiricists contend that the process of acquiring knowledge relies on the systematic gathering and examination of facts. They reject the notion that simply theoretical study may bring us closer to the truth and argue that all claims of knowledge must be based on empirical evidence. It is crucial to distinguish between the terms 'empiricist' and 'empirical' at this juncture. The term 'empiricist' denotes the belief that all assertions of knowledge must be based on factual evidence, while 'empirical' is an adjective used to describe research that involves the systematic gathering and examination of data. Hypothetico-deductivism Several significant practical and conceptual constraints of positivism and empiricism prompted the emergence of alternative theories of knowledge. Karl Popper's criticism of inductivism and subsequent development of hypothetico-deductivism is the most influential alternative. Currently, it serves as the foundation of mainstream experimental psychology. Popper recognized that a set of observations could never lead to an absolute statement like 'a follows b'. No matter how frequently we witness the occurrence of b following a, we can never guarantee that our subsequent observation will provide the same result. There is a perpetual possibility that the following instance will deviate from the norm. This refers to the issue of induction. Popper expressed dissatisfaction with the fact that numerous influential theories seemed capable of incorporating a broad spectrum of phenomena, interpreting them as validation of the theory's assertions. It appeared that no scientific theory could ever be definitively validated. This is the issue of verification. In order to overcome these issues, Popper suggested that scientific study should rely on deduction and falsification rather than induction and verification. Popper's hypothetico-deductive technique does precisely that. In this context, ideas are subjected to empirical testing by formulating hypotheses based on them, which are subsequently verified through practical experimentation or observation.  9 The objective of the research is to empirically evaluate the claims made by a theory in order to either refute the hypothesis or provisionally uphold it. Hypothetico-deductivism operates by seeking falsification or disconfirmation of a theory's claims, rather than searching for evidence that supports them. By employing this method, we can identify which assertions are false and, by a systematic process of eliminating such statements, we approach a more accurate understanding of the truth. Critique of the‘scientifific method’ Popper developed a scientific technique that avoided induction and verification issues. However, Popper's hypothetico-deductivism was criticized in the 1960s and 1970s for ignoring historical, social, and cultural influences on knowledge production. Hypothetico-deductivism is criticized for: Hypothetico-deductivism does not provide sufficient space for theory development. This shows that the method's reliance on hypotheses from present theories hinders new ideas. If our research approach is limited to examining current hypotheses to reject or keep them, we are unlikely to unearth unique and unexpected findings. Popper (1969: 231) advised scholars to test "bold conjectures" because mistakes teach valuable insights. Even the most outrageous hypotheses are based on current knowledge and expectations. Hypothetico-deductivism denies that evidence can challenge knowledge and change our perspective. Hypothetico-deductivism is elitist. Hypothetico-deductivism uses deductive reasoning from established theories. Thus, anyone unfamiliar with these theories and systems cannot practice it. Hypothetico-deductive communities of scientists and researchers analyze their own and one other's hypotheses. If knowledge is defined as rejecting or maintaining past conceptions, it is difficult, if not impossible, for novices to contribute to knowledge creation. Hypothetico-deductivism is a myth. Popper promoted progressive knowledge progression. Dismissing faulty notions would steadily increase knowledge. Experiments let scientists examine hypotheses and reject theories. Thomas Kuhn (1962–1970) disagreed fundamentally. He argued that theories are not empirically verified in this way. Although scientists were passionate about a theory, they didn't dismiss it based on experiments. If the results did not match the hypothesis, they assumed an error. Thus, the scientist and experimental design were blamed for the failure, not the theory. Kuhn disagreed with Popper that scientific progress occurred gradually and steadily, arguing that scientific revolutions caused paradigm shifts. A paradigm, or conceptual framework, is broadened to include other evidence in this situation. Over time, anomalies and inconsistencies accumulate until socioeconomic and historical pressures create a viable alternative worldview. After dominating, the new paradigm will resist change for a long time.  10 Feminist critique of established epistemologies Feminist scholars noted issues and limitations with existing epistemic approaches. In the 1960s and 1970s, they highlighted the limited representation of women in social science and their perceived inferiority to men in moral growth, intelligence, and conversational style. Feminists contended that these findings justified and maintained gender inequality in society. To combat gender inequality and end oppression, feminist researchers challenged the epistemological and methodological basis of sexist knowledge claims. A comprehensive critique of ‘male science’ followed. The critique consists of the following key arguments: The male as the norm. The majority of human studies involved men. Most studies used men because they were accessible and considered the average ‘human subject’. Thus, community-wide findings from young, white, middle-class male studies were utilized. Young, white, middle-class men determine society's standards. After women were included, their performance and behavior were compared to men and found wanting. Carol Gilligan's (1982) critique of the ‘male as norm’ moral development method is well-known. Gilligan disagreed with Kohlberg's (1976) claim that women's morality was lower than men's. Many studies employing Kohlberg's moral growth scale validated his claim. Based on moral growth, this scale grades people from 1 to 3. Levels and phases progress from basic moral concerns (e.g., individual outcome) to outward approval-based and interior conscience-based criteria. Male volunteers answered hypothetical moral dilemmas and were categorized to construct the scale. Gilligan suggests girls are trained to care, while boys are encouraged to be just. Kohlberg's justice-oriented measure favored men. Gilligan found alternative moral reasoning in women with abortion issues. She thought women's non-violence and care morals were as sophisticated as Kohlberg's Level 3 (personal conscience). Just different. The God trick. Science was thought to be impartial and favor male ideas. Researchers must remain detached from their subjects to be objective. Protocols reduce researcher contamination during data collection and processing. Standardized protocols, restricted researcher-participant interaction, blind or double-blind data collection and processing, and neutral research settings (e.g., removing personal artifacts or wearing white coats) were used in the study. Feminist critics say 'objective' methods hide the researcher's identity and perspective, affecting the study process and results. The authors suggested that researchers are naturally involved in the issue they study, hence they cannot remain objective. According to Donna Haraway (1988), looking different is 'God's eye vision'. Researchers should study the phenomenon from their own subjective perspective rather than a detached and omniscient perspective. Explore how their perspective affected their study technique and conclusions. Reflexivity will be explained later in this chapter and throughout the book.  11 Despite increasing criticism of traditional knowledge systems and male-dominated science, there is no feminist epistemology or approach. Positivism, empiricism, and hypothetico-deductivism have been challenged by feminist researchers in various ways. Feminist social scientists and philosophers have developed perspective epistemology (Harding 1991), ethnomethodology (Stanley and Wise 1983), and feminist post-structuralism. Social constructionism Social constructionism has gained significant influence in recent years, as seen by its growing prominence (refer to Burr, 2003). Social constructionism highlights the notion that human experience, including perception, is influenced by historical, cultural, and linguistic factors. In other words, our perception and experience are never an exact representation of the environment, but rather an interpretation of it. This implies that our understanding of the world is not limited to a single body of knowledge, but rather consists of multiple forms of knowledge. Language has a crucial role in the development of socially constructed knowledge. Different perspectives can be used to describe the same occurrence or event, leading to various perceptions and understandings. However, none of these descriptions are inherently incorrect. A clear illustration of this may be seen in the decision to describe a glass of water as either 'half-full' or 'half-empty'. Both statements are equally correct, but one of them presents a positive and optimistic view of the situation ('half-full'), while the other highlights the absence and deficiency ('half-empty'). Research from a social constructionist perspective aims to discover the many methods of creating social reality within a culture. It seeks to examine the circumstances under which these methods are employed and understand their impact on human experience and social behavior. Researchers in psychology who follow the social constructionist perspective have conducted critical analyses of psychological concepts such as 'emotion' (e.g. Harré 1986), 'prejudice' (e.g. Potter and Wetherell 1987), and 'psychopathology' (e.g. Parker et al. 1995). These researchers aim to demonstrate that these categories are not mere reflections of reality, but rather tools for constructing our understanding of reality. Epistemology and methodology How do epistemology and methodology relate? Does our epistemological viewpoint dictate the research methodology we should use? To answer these questions, we must distinguish between ‘method’ and ‘methodology’. Though commonly used interchangeably, the phrases allude to distinct research aspects. According to Silverman (1993: 1), ‘methodology’ refers to a broad approach to research issues, whereas ‘method’ refers to a specific research technique. (See Chapter 2 for a contrast between data gathering and  12 analysis approaches.) Differentiating between ‘general approach to examining research topics’ and ‘specific research techniques’ is important as the former is more influenced by the researcher’s epistemological viewpoint. A researcher with an empiricist approach to knowledge acquisition will focus on data collection rather than theoretical formulations. The researcher's empiricist epistemological viewpoint does not dictate how data is acquired, for as by observation, questionnaires, or interviews. Hypothetico-deductivism, an epistemological perspective and research method known as hypothesis-testing through experimentation, is an exception (see to Chapter 5 for its usage in case study research). Not all research methods work with all approaches. Although researchers have some flexibility in selecting methodologies, their epistemological and methodological commitments limit their options. For instance, social constructionist methodologies are incompatible with population-based measurement methods. Social constructionists dispute the validity of abstractions like ‘psychological variables’ and explore how they are ‘made real’. Attempting to ‘measure’ such creations cannot do this. A social constructionist perspective views measuring psychological factors as a means of building them.  13 References: _______________________________ American Psychological Association. (2015). APA Dictionary of Psychology (2nd ed.) Kolehiyo ng Lungsod ng Dasmariñas, Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs, Institute of Liberal Arts, Psychology Program. (2024) Course Syllabus in Field Methods in Psychology Willig, C. (2013). Introducing Qualitative Research in Psychology Do you have any queries about the module? Please email Inst. Jom Caballero at [email protected]  14 Chapter Quiz: Introduction to Field Methods in Psychology ______ Instructions: Please read the following items and provide your answers. 1. What is the primary focus of epistemology in the context of knowledge theory? A. To analyze statistical data B. To determine the best research methods C. To establish ethical guidelines for research D. To explore the nature, extent, and validity of knowledge 2. According to Kvale (1996a), how are research techniques defined? A. As informal discussions with participants B. As random methods used in various fields C. As subjective interpretations of data D. As systematic approaches to achieve a specific objective 3. What does positivism assert about the relationship between the external world and our perception of it? A. Knowledge is solely subjective B. Our perceptions are the only reality C. Perception distorts objective reality D. There is a direct correlation between the external world and our comprehension of it 4. According to Kirk and Miller (1986), what is the primary aim of research from a positivist perspective? A. To explore subjective experiences B. To generate objective knowledge that is impartial and unbiased C. To understand the complexities of human emotions D. To validate personal beliefs and opinions 5. What is the primary basis for acquiring knowledge according to empiricism? A. Empirical evidence gathered through sense perception B. Historical accounts and narratives C. Intuition and personal beliefs D. Theoretical speculation 6. How do contemporary empiricists view the relationship between knowledge claims and empirical evidence? A. All claims of knowledge must be based on empirical evidence B. Empirical evidence is secondary to theoretical understanding C. Knowledge claims can be based solely on theoretical study  15 D. Personal experiences are sufficient for knowledge claims 7. What is the primary focus of Karl Popper's hypothetico-deductive method in scientific research? A. To establish absolute truths based on inductive reasoning B. To formulate hypotheses that can be empirically tested and potentially falsified C. To rely solely on qualitative data and personal experiences D. To seek verification of a theory's claims through repeated observations 8. What is a major criticism of Popper's hypothetico-deductivism regarding theory development? A. It allows for the integration of historical and cultural contexts B. It encourages the exploration of bold conjectures C. It limits research to existing hypotheses, hindering the discovery of new ideas D. It promotes collaboration among novice researchers 9. According to Thomas Kuhn, how does scientific progress occur, in contrast to Popper's view? A. By systematically rejecting faulty theories B. Through verification of existing theories C. Through gradual accumulation of knowledge D. Via paradigm shifts caused by scientific revolutions 10. What was the main issue that feminist scholars highlighted with existing social science research in the 1960s and 1970s? A. The lack of gender diversity in research samples B. The limited representation of women in studies C. The overrepresentation of women in studies D. The underrepresentation of men in studies 11. According to feminist critics, what is problematic about the 'objective' methods used in traditional research? A. They are too focused on quantitative data collection B. They encourage researcher involvement in the research process C. They hide the researcher's identity and perspective, affecting the study D. They limit the exploration of subjective experiences 12. What is the main premise of social constructionism regarding human experience? A. Human experience is solely determined by biological factors B. Human experience is shaped by historical, cultural, and linguistic factors C. Human experience is a product of individual cognition D. Human experience is universal and independent of context 13. How does social constructionism view the nature of knowledge and reality? A. Knowledge and reality are objective and independent of human interpretation B. Knowledge and reality are subjective and constructed through social interactions C. Knowledge and reality are solely determined by individual perceptions D. Knowledge and reality are universal across cultures and time periods  16 14. How does a researcher's epistemological viewpoint influence their choice of methodology? A. It dictates the specific research techniques they must use B. It has no impact on the choice of methodology C. It limits the researcher's ability to conduct qualitative research D. It shapes the broad approach to examining research topics, but not the specific methods 15. What is the distinction between 'method' and 'methodology' as described by Silverman? A. Methodology is concerned with qualitative data, while method is concerned with quantitative data B. Methodology refers to a broad approach to research issues, while method refers to specific research techniques C. Method refers to the overall philosophy of research, while methodology refers to specific techniques D. Methodology is a synonym for method and can be used interchangeably