Introduction to Psychology Midterm Notes PDF

Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE NOTE: 1. Can be responsive behaviorally. LESSON 6: CONSCIOUSNESS...

Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE NOTE: 1. Can be responsive behaviorally. LESSON 6: CONSCIOUSNESS MODERATE CONSCIOUSNESS WHAT IS AWARENESS ➔ When we sleep and dream, we are moderately conscious. Between the ➔ It is when you are able to monitor the extremes of a complete lack of information from your environment consciousness and full consciousness from your own thoughts. lies a realm that accounts for what our minds do. WHAT IS WAKEFULNESS ➔ It is the degree of alertness reflecting whether a person is awake or asleep. FULL CONSCIOUSNESS ➔ Even when fully awake, we experience MINIMAL CONSCIOUSNESS fluctuations in consciousness–alertness ebbs and A COMA flows. ➔ A state of consciousness in which the eyes are closed, and the person is unresponsive WHAT IS A FLOW STATE? and unarousable. ➔ It is a mental state where you are completely absorbed and involved in B VEGETATIVE STAGE your actions. (Being in the zone) ➔ A state of minimal consciousness in which the eyes might be open, but the person otherwise is unresponsive. WHAT IS MINDFULNESS ➔ A heightened awareness of the present C MINIMALLY CONSCIOUS moment, whether of events in one’s environment or one’s own mind. ➔ State in which a patient shows signs of intentional behavior (such as visually tracking a person) but cannot communicate. ATTENTION D DISORDERS OF CONSCIOUSNESS ➔ The limited capacity to process information that is under conscious control. ➔ A diagnostic category that encompasses the variety of ways in which wakefulness and awareness might be compromised. PAGE 1 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE SELECTIVE ATTENTION ATTENTION CONTROL ➔ The ability to focus awareness on specific ➔ Factors such as fatigue, stress, and emotional environmental features while ignoring state can influence attentional control, others. making it more difficult for individuals to maintain focus and resist distractions. SUSTAINED ATTENTION DIGITAL DISTRACTIONS ➔ The ability to maintain focused awareness of a target or an idea. ➔ Studies have shown that the constant availability of smartphones, social media, and INATTENTIONAL BLINDNESS other digital devices can disrupt attention and ➔ is defined as the phenomenon where make it easier for people to become individuals fail to notice obvious but distracted. unexpected objects or events in their visual field when their attention is engaged with COGNITIVE LOAD another task, even if the unexpected stimulus is within their spatial focus of ➔ Engaging in cognitively demanding tasks can attention. deplete cognitive resources, making it more challenging to maintain focus and resist COCKTAIL PARTY EFFECT distractions. ➔ Refers to the ability to focus one’s attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a TRAINING CONSCIOUSNESS: MEDITATION range of other stimuli (i.e. noise) MEDIATION These are practices that people use to LIMITED ATTENTION CAPACITY calm the mind, stabilize concentration, focus attention, and enhance awareness ➔ When presented with multiple stimuli of the present moment. competing for attention, individuals may become overwhelmed and easily distracted. PAGE 2 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE SLEEPING AND DREAMING BENEFITS OF BEGINNING THE DAY WITH A RELAXING ROUTINE Sleeping It has two essential characteristics: it Relaxation and Alpha waves are creates a perceptual wall between the Stress Reduction associated with a relaxed conscious mind and the outside world, and calm state of mind. and the sleeping state can be reversed Beginning your day with in an instant by waking. alpha waves can help you start off on a positive Circadian Rhythms note, reducing feelings of The variations in physiological stress and anxiety that processes that cycle within may have accumulated approximately a 24-hour period, overnight. including the sleep-wake cycle. Improved Mood Alpha waves are often linked to improved mood and emotional stability. MENTAL STATE By cultivating a state of calmness and tranquility Relaxed Alertness Alpha waves are typically at the start of your day, observed when a person is you may be better awake but in a relaxed and equipped to handle calm state. This mental challenges and setbacks state is often described as with a more positive a "wakeful relaxation" outlook. where the mind is not overly engaged in active Enhanced Alpha waves have been cognitive tasks but is still Creativity associated with increased alert and aware of the creativity and divergent surroundings. thinking. Starting your day in an alpha state may help Mindfulness and Alpha waves are foster a mindset that is Present-Moment associated with conducive to generating Awareness mindfulness and new ideas and solutions to present-moment problems. awareness. When alpha waves are dominant, Increased Focus While alpha waves are individuals may and Attention generally associated with experience a heightened relaxation, they can also sense of focus on the be present during periods present moment, with of focused attention and reduced distractions from concentration. By past or future thoughts. beginning your day with alpha waves, you may find it easier to maintain a state of relaxed alertness, allowing you to stay PAGE 3 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE focused on tasks without BRAIN WAVES feeling overwhelmed or distracted. GAMA WAVES High cognitive processes (Awareness) such as problem-solving, Mindfulness and Alpha waves are often perception, and conscious Presence associated with awareness (integrates mindfulness and information) present-moment awareness. Starting your ALPHA WAVES Are associated with a day with alpha waves can (Relaxed) relaxed, wakeful state. help you cultivate a sense They are often observed of mindfulness and during meditation, presence, enabling you to creativity, and fully engage with the daydreaming. They activities and interactions indicate a calm and of the day ahead. relaxed state but with some level of mental Improved Learning Some research suggests activity. (Relaxed) and Memory that alpha waves may play a role in memory THETA WAVES Are slow, rhythmic brain consolidation and (Tired) waves associated with learning. By starting your deep sleep and relaxation. day with alpha waves, you They are often observed may be setting the stage during meditation, for optimal cognitive hypnosis, and creative functioning and improved problem-solving. retention of information throughout the day. DELTA WAVES These are the slowest (Sleep) brain waves during deep sleep, coma, and RAPID EYE MOVEMENT (REM) anesthesia. They indicate a deep state of relaxation Quick movements of the eye that occur or unconsciousness. during sleep, thought to mark phases of (Intense) dreaming. MENTAL STATE NON-REM ➔ They are associated with high-level The form of sleep with few eye cognitive processes such as perception, movements, which are slow rather than fast. problem-solving, and conscious awareness. PAGE 4 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE interfere with the natural transition to FUNCTIONS relaxation and sleep, leading to difficulties 1. Gamma waves are involved in integrating falling asleep or disrupted sleep patterns. information from various brain areas, 6. Neglect of Relaxation and Recovery: facilitating communication between Consistently operating in a gamma state different regions of the brain. They are also may lead to neglecting relaxation and associated with memory formation, recovery activities that are essential for learning, and complex cognitive tasks. overall well-being. Without adequate rest 2. Example: When you're fully engaged in a periods and downtime, individuals may challenging mental task. experience decreased resilience to stress 3. Mental Fatigue and Burnout: Operating in a and reduced overall mental and physical state of gamma wave dominance for health. prolonged periods without adequate rest may lead to mental fatigue and burnout. DISORDERS OF SLEEP Continuous high-level cognitive Insomnia A sleep difficulty engagement can drain mental energy and characterized by difficulty falling and staying asleep, decrease overall productivity over time. as well as not feeling 4. Increased Stress and Anxiety: While gamma rested. waves are associated with peak mental Sleepwalking A sleep difficulty by performance, excessive activation of activities occurring during non-REM sleep that gamma oscillations may also lead to usually occur when one is heightened levels of stress and anxiety. The awake, such as walking and eating. pressure to maintain high cognitive Narcolepsy A sleep disorder functioning for extended periods without characterized by excessive relaxation can contribute to feelings of daytime sleepiness and weakness in facial and overwhelm and tension. limb muscles. 5. Sleep Disturbances: Gamma waves are Sleep Apnea A sleeping disorder typically associated with wakefulness and characterized by brief pauses in breathing during active mental engagement. If gamma wave sleep. dominance persists into the evening, it may Hypersomnia A sleep difficulty PAGE 5 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE characterized by sleeping more than 10 hours a day DREAMING for 2 weeks or more; includes an urge to nap Dreams: Images, thoughts, and feelings during inappropriate experienced during sleep. times. Night Terrors A state that occurs when a person walks around, PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY speaks incoherently, and ultimately awakens, Manifest level, Freud’s surface level of terrified, from sleep. dreams, recalled upon waking. Latent level, Freud’s deeper unconsciousnes level of dreams; their The 4 Stages of Sleep meaning is found at this level NREM Stage 1 The transition period between wakefulness and BIOLOGICAL THEORY sleep Lasts around 5 to AIM, three biologically based dimensions 10 minutes of consciousness–activation, input, and mode. A-ctivation, I-nput, M-ode. NREM Stage 2 Body temperature Activation refers to the amount of drops and heart neutral activation that ranges from low rate begin to slow. to high activation. Input refers to The brain begins to whether stimulation is internal or produce sleep external. Mode refers to the mental spindles. state–from logical (wakeful) to loose Lasts illogical (dreaming). approximately 20 minutes. NREM Stage 3 Muscles relax HYPNOSIS Blood pressure and breathing rate A state characterized by focused drop attention, suggestibility, absorption, Deepest sleep lack of voluntary control over behavior, occurs and suspension of critical faculties occurs when instructed by someone REM Sleep Brain becomes trained in hypnosis; it may be more active therapeutic. Body becomes relaxed and immobilized Dreams occur Eyes move rapidly. PAGE 6 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE STROOP EFFECT PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS DRUG SHORT-TERM RISKS A delay in reaction time when the colors CLASSIFICATION EFFECTS of words on a test and their meaning differ. Depressants Relaxation, depressed Accidents, brain Alcohol brain activity, slowed damage, liver behavior, reduced damage, inhibitions blackouts ALTERING CONSCIOUSNESS WITH DRUGS Sedatives Relaxation, sleep Accidents, slowed heart rate, PSYCHOACTIVE Naturally occurring or possible death DRUGS synthesized substances Oploids Euphoria, pain relief, Slowed heart rate that, when ingested or bodily relaxtion and breathing otherwise taken into the death body, reliably produce Stimulants Alertness, Anxiety, insomnia qualitative changes in Caffeine nervousness, conscious experience. increased heart rate. Nicotine Arousal, stimulation, Cardiovascular TOLERANCE The need to consume a increased heart rate. disease, lung drug get the desired effect cancer risk with smoking WITHDRAWAL The adverse effects people Cocaine Exhilaration, euphoria, Insomnia, heart SYMPTOMS with physical dependence irritability attack, paranoia experience if they stop using a drug. Amphetamines Increased alertness, Insomnia,, excitability, difficulty paranoia, concentrating accelerated heart HALLUCINATIONS Convincing sensory rate experiences that occur in the absence of an external Ecstasy (MDMA) Mild amphetamine Depression, and hallucinogenic mental deficits, stimulus. effects, high body cardiovascular temperature and problems ADDICTION A condition that results dehydration; sense of well-being and social from habitual use or connectedness physical and psychological dependence on a Hallucinogens Euphoric feelings, Memory problems, Marijuana relaxation, mild respiratory substance. hallucinations, time illness, immune distortion, attention system imp DEPRESSANTS Substances that decrease and memory impairment, fatigue. or slow down central nervous system activity. LSD Strong hallucinations, Accidents, distorted time insomnia perception, synesthesia. PAGE 7 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE PARTS OF BRAIN ○ Psilocybin: Is the active ingredient of hallucinogenic HYPOTHALAMUS Hunger, Thirst, and sexual mushrooms. Experimental motivation. studies on the use of psilocybin show that the “trips” can lead to HIPPOCAMPUS Learning and memory profound spiritual experiences, even in studies where people were FRONTAL LOBE Planning, abstract “blind” to what they were taking. thinking, and reasoning CEREBELLUM Movement and coordination LESSON 7: MEMORY Additional Information WHAT IS MEMORY Sedatives: creates a feeling of stupor similar to that of alcohol intoxication. ➔ The ability to take in, solidify, store, Opioids: Another class of depressants and use information; also the store of (also called narcotics), a term that what has been learned and applies to all drugs derived from opium or remembered. chemicals similar to opium. Stimulants: Substances that activate the nervous system. (e.g. Caffeine) ENCODING: TAKING IN INFORMATION (1ST Amphetamines: Are synthetically STEP) produced compounds that produce long-lasting excitation of the sympathetic ➔ The process by which the brain attends nervous system that keeps us ready for to, takes in, and integrates new action. information the first stage of MDMA: long-term memory formation. (Methylenedioxymethamphetamine), also known as Molly or Ecstasy, acts as both a stimulant and a mild hallucinogen. TYPES OF ENCODING Hallucinogens: Substances that creates distorted perceptions of reality ranging AUTOMATIC The encoding of from mild to extreme. PROCESSING information with little ○ Marijuana: comes from the effort or conscious blossoms and leaves of the attention to the tasks, and Cannabissativa plant. because of these, our ○ Endocannabinoids: Natural, recall of them does not marijuana-like susbtances improve with practice. producecd by the body. ○ LSD: (Lysergic acid EFFORTFUL The encoding of diethylamide-25), or “acid,” is a PROCESSING information occurs with synthesized form of lysergic careful attention and acid, which is derived from the conscious. (we are more grain fungus ergot. focused to retained the PAGE 8 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE activated, they are primed and more likely information) to make an association to a nearby concept or node. Additional Information Mnemonic device - Is a form of mental RETRIEVAL: GETTING AND USING image of each word or object, it is a INFORMATION (LAST STEP) method device to help us remember information. ➔ The recovery of information stored in memory; the fourth stage of long-tern memory. CONSOLIDATION: SOLIDIFYING INFORMAATION (2ND STEP) DEPTHS OF PROCESSING ➔ The process of establishing, stabilizing or solidifying memory the second stage of STRUCTURAL (It’s the shallowest level, low) long-term memory formation. PHONEMIC (Midlevel, medium) SEMANTIC (Deepest level of processing, highest) STORAGE: KEEPING INFORMATION(3RD STEP) ➔ Happens once the memory has been encoded and consolidated, and they are Additional Information ready to be stored. Storage is the Emotional, emotional memories are retention of memory over time for easier to recall than the factual ones. long-term memory formation. Emotions helps us encode and retrieve memories. Additional Information Hierarchies are the way of organizing THREE MAJOR TYPES OF MEMORY related pieces of information from the most specific to the most general. SENSORY MEMORY Holds information in its Schemas are mental frameworks that original sensory form fron develop from our experience with a very brief period of time, particular objects or events. They usually about half a basically acts like a filter through which second or less. we encode and organize information about our world. SHORT-TERM Temporarily (2 to 30 MEMORY seconds) stores a limited amount of information ASSOCIATE NETWORK before it is either transferred to long-term ➔ A chain of association between related memory storage or concepts. Each concepts or association in a forgotten. network is referred to as a node. The links between the nodes are associations. When LONG-TERM It has the capacity to store people think of a concept, and its node is PAGE 9 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE ➔ The one that decides where to focus MEMORY vast amount of attention and selectively hones in on information for as little as specific aspects of a stimulus. 30 seconds and as long as a lifetime. SENSORY MEMORY Additional Information Once information is taken in and attended to, it is sent to a temporary ➔ As we interact with the world our sensory store: the visuospatial sketchpad if it is systems are stimulated—we may smell, visual or spatial information, the episodic taste, feel, see, or hear an experience. buffer if it is a specific event or experience, or the phonological loop if it is sound or linguistic information. SENSORY NEURONS The visuospatial sketchpad, as the name implies, briefly provides storage for visual ➔ It responds to sensory stimuli by sending and spatial sensations, such as images, signals to the brain for processing. photos, scenes, and three-dimensional objects. The episodic buffer is a temporary store WORKING MEMORY for information that will become long long-term memories of specific events. ➔ The part of the memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand. REHEARSAL CHUNKING ➔ The process of repeatedly practicing of material, so that it enters to long-term ➔ Breaking down a list of items to be memory. remembered into a smaller set of meaningful units. THE SERIAL POSITION EFFECT THREE MAJOR TYPES OF MEMORY ➔ The tendency to have better recall for items in a list according to their position in the Attending to a stimulus list. Storing information about the stimulus Additional Information Rehearsing the stored process to help solve a The beginning of a listen is known problem primacy effect, whereas recall for items in the end is known as the recency effect. CENTRAL EXECUTIVE PAGE 10 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY PREFRONTAL CORTEX IMPLICIT MEMORY A kind of memory made up ➔ The frontmost region of the frontal lobes; of knowledge based on plays an important role in attention, previous experience. Such as skills that we perform appropriate social behavior, impulse control, automatically once we and working memory. have mastered them; resides outside SHORT-TERM AND WORKING MEMORY AND THE consciousness awareness. BRAIN EXPLICIT MEMORY The knowledge consists of the conscious recall of ➔ The prefrontal cortex determines what facts and events, also information in the environment is worthy of known as declarative our attention. memory. OPTOGENETICS Additional Information Procedural memory is our knowledge of ➔ A treatment that uses a combination of almost any behavior or physical skill we light stimulation and genetics to learn. (implicit knowledge) manipulate the activity of individual Priming is a kind of implicit memory that neurons. arises from prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli. Semantic memory is our memory for facts and knowledge, such as what we TRANSCRANIAL DIRECT CURRENT STIMULATION learn in school. (tDCS) Episodic memory is our memory for the events (episodes) we have lived through. ➔ Electrical stimulation of the brain. Highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM), whereby they can recall in considerable detail personal events RECONSOLIDATION (episodes) from almost any day of their adolescent and adult life. ➔ Occurs when a reactivation of a memory weakens the original memory and a new *** consolidation happens, but this resulting a LONG-TERM POTENTIATION slightly different memory. ➔ The strengthening of a synaptic connection FALSE MEMORY that results when a synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another ➔ Memories for events that never happened neuron. but were suggested by someone or something. PAGE 11 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE RECOVERED MEMORY PROACTIVE The disruption of INTERFERENCE memory because of ➔ A memory from a real event that was previously learned encoded, stored, but not retrieved for a long information interferes time until some later event brings it with the learning of new suddenly to consciousness. information. SUGGESTIBILITY FORGETTING CURVE A graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time. ➔ A problem with memory that occurs when memories are implanted in our minds based ABSENT-MINDEDNESS A form of forgetfulness on leading questions, comments, or that results from suggestion by someone else or some other inattention. source. BLOCKING The inability to retrieve MISINFORMATION EFFECT some information that once was stored. ➔ Occurs when information learned after an REPRESSION The unconscious act of original event is wrong or misleading but keeping threatening gets incorporated into the memory as true thoughts, feelings, or impulses out consciousness. FORGETTING AMNESIA Memory loss due to ➔ The weakening or loss of memories over brain injury or disease. time. ANTEROGRADE The inability to AMNESIA remember events and experience that occur FORMS OF FORGETTING after an injury or the onset of a disease. INTERFERENCE Disruption of memory because other RETROGRADE An inability to recall information competes AMNESIA events or experiences with the information we that happened before are trying to recall. the onset of a disease or injury. RETROACTIVE The disruption of INTERFERENCE memory caused by new experiences or information causes people to forget previously learned experiences or information. PAGE 12 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE LESSON 8: LEARNING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UNCONDITIONED The natural, automatic, RESPONSE (UCR) inborn, and involuntary LEARNING reaction to a stimulus. ➔ Enduring changes in behavior that occur UNCONDITIONED The Environmental input with experience. STIMULUS (UCS) always produces the same unlearned, involuntary response. ASSOCIATION CONDITIONED A previously neutral STIMULUS (CS) input that an organism ➔ A process by which two pieces of learns to associate with information from the environment are UCS. repeatedly linked. So that we begin to connect them to our minds. CONDITIONED A behavior that an RESPONSE (CR) organism learns to perform when presented with the CS. CONDITIONING ➔ A form of associative learning in which STIMULUS GENERALIZATION associations with events in the environment trigger behaviors. ➔ Extention of the association between UCS ➔ It is the process by which a behavior and CS to include a broad array of similar becomes more likely due to association stimuli. with events that occur in the organism's environment. STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION ➔ The restriction of a CR (such as CLASSICAL CONDITIONING salivation) to only the exact CS to which it was conditioned. ➔ Learning occurs when a natural stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which the learner has an automatic, inborn response. EXTINCTION ➔ Neutral Stimulus, an object or situation ➔ The weakening and disappearance of a that when presented alone does not lead to an automatic (or unconditioned) conditioned response in the absence of response. reinforcement. PAGE 13 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE OPERANT CONDITIONING SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY ➔ The process of changing behavior by ➔ The sudden reappearance of an manipulating the consequences of that extinguished response. behavior. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT LAW OF EFFECT ➔ Definition: Involves adding a pleasant ➔ The consequences of a behavior by manipulating the consequences of that stimulus to increase a desired behavior. behavior. ➔ Purpose: Encourages a behavior by providing a reward. REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT ➔ Example: If you wake up early, you treat PRIMARY Innate, unlearned yourself to a nice breakfast or extra time REINFORCERS reinforcers that satisfy (Needs) biological needs (such as for a favorite activity. This reward food, water, or sex) makes you more likely to wake up early SECONDARY Reinforcers that are again in the future. (CONDITIONED) learned by association, REINFORCERS usually via classical (Wants) conditioning (such as money, grades, and peer NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT approval) ➔ Definition: Involves removing an POSITIVE The presentation or REINFORCEMENT addition of a stimulus unpleasant stimulus to increase a desired after a behavior occurs that increases how often behavior. that behavior will occur. ➔ Purpose: Encourages a behavior by NEGATIVE The removal of a eliminating something negative. REINFORCEMENT stimulus after a behavior to increase frequency on ➔ Example: Turning off a loud alarm when that behavior. you get out of bed early. This encourages you to wake up early to avoid the noise. PAGE 14 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE PUNISHMENT SHAPING ➔ A stimulus that decreases the frequency of a behavior. ➔ The reinforcement of successive ➔ Positive Punishment, the addition of a approximations of a desired behavior. stimulus that decreases behavior. ➔ Negative Punishment, the removal of a stimulus to decrease behavior. CLASSICAL OPERANT CONDITIONING CONDITIONING BASIC Forming a new Reinforcement POSITIVE PUNISHMENT PRINCIPLE association increases between the frequency of a ➔ Definition: Involves adding an unpleasant previously neutral behavior stimulus to decrease an undesired stimulus and a. Punishment response that decreases the behavior. used to occur frequency automatically of a behavior ➔ Purpose: Discourages a behavior by to a biologically important introducing something negative. stimulus. ➔ Example: Giving yourself extra chores if NATURE OF The behavior is The behavior is you sleep in. This aims to discourage the BEHAVIOR based on based on an organism an organism behavior of oversleeping ’s involuntary ’s voluntary action. The behavior: it's consequence reflex of the behavior es. The creates NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT behavior is the likelihood of its elicited by the increasing or ➔ Definition: Involves removing a pleasant unconditioned decreasing stimulus (UCS) the behavior stimulus to decrease an undesired or conditioned. behavior. stimulus (CS). ➔ Purpose: Discourages a behavior by taking ORDERS OF Before Reinforcement EVENTS conditioning leads to away something enjoyable. occurs, a UCS an increase in leads to a behavior ➔ Example: If you consistently fail to wake UCR. After. conditioning, a Punishment leads up early, you take away privileges like CS leads to a CR. to a screen time or social activities. This decrease in behavior removal aims to reduce the behavior of sleeping in. PAGE 15 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE VARIABLE-INTERVAL (VI) SCHEDULE SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT ➔ Reinforcement after a variable amount of ➔ Patterns of intermittent reinforcement time (e.g., random drug tests). distinguished by whether reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses or after a certain amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION ➔ The learned avoidance of a particular taste or food. CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT ➔ Reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs. INSTINCTIVE DRIFT ➔ Learned behavior that shifts toward instinctive, unlearned behavior INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT tendencies. ➔ Reinforcement of a behavior—but not after every response. BIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINT MODEL ➔ A view on learning which proposes that FIXED-RATIO (FR) SCHEDULE some behaviors are inherently more likely to be learned than others. ➔ A pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which reinforcement follows a set number of responses (e.g., reward after every 10 purchases). LATENT LEARNING ➔ Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated VARIABLE-RATIO (VR) SCHEDULE until later, when reinforcement occurs. ➔ A pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes (e.g., slot machines). FIXED-INTERVAL (FI) SCHEDULE ➔ Reinforcement after a set amount of time (e.g., weekly paycheck). PAGE 16 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY LESSON 10: INTELLIGENCE, SOCIAL LEARNING The kind of learning that THEORY occurs when we model PROBLEM-SOLVING AND CREATIVITY the behavior of others. OBSERVATIONAL Learning is influenced by INTELLIGENCE LEARNING watching the behavior of others. ➔ A set of cognitive skills that includes abstract thinking, reasoning, problem, MODELING The imitation of solving, and the ability to acquire behaviors performed by knowledge. others. A kind of observational learning. TRADITIONAL METHODS OF INTELLIGENCE: INTELLIGENCE AS A SINGLE, GENERAL ABILITY IMPRINTING (CHARLES SPEARMAN – 1904, 1923) ➔ The rapid and innate learning of the VERBAL Is the ability to solve characteristics of a caregiver very soon INTELLIGENCE problems and analyze after birth. information using language-based reasoning. ETHOLOGY SPATIAL Is defined as ability or ➔ The scientific study of animal behavior. INTELLIGENCE mental skill to solve spatial problems such as navigating, and EMBODIED COGNITION visualizing objects from different angles. ➔ The thought processes involved in representing parts of the body and/or QUANTITATIVE Is the ability to reason reenacting bodily actions in thoughts. INTELLIGENCE and solve problems by carrying out mathematical operations and using logic. G-FACTOR THEORY ➔ Spearman’s theory that intelligence is a single general (g) factor made up of specific components. PAGE 17 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS OF TRADITIONAL SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE VIEWS OF INTELLIGENCE: INTELLIGENCE AS MULTIPLE ABILITIES ➔ According to Sternberg, an integrated set of abilities is needed to attain success. Multiple-factor theory The idea is that intelligence consists of distinct dimensions and is not just a single TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE factor. (STERNBERG’S THREE-PART) Fluid influence Raw mental ability, ➔ Sternberg’s three-part model of pattern recognition, and intelligence, including analytic, creative, abstract reasoning that and practical intelligence. can be applied to a ➔ Analytic intelligence, involves judging, problem one has never evaluating, or comparing and contrasting confronted before. information. ➔ Creative intelligence, which involves Crystallized The kind of knowledge coming up with fresh and useful ideas for intelligence that one gains from solving problems experience and learning, ➔ Practical intelligence, is the ability to education, and practice. solve problems of everyday life efficiently. JOHN CARROLL (1993) THREE INTELLIGENCE NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE (HOWARD HIERARCHY GARDNER) GENERAL One of Carroll’s three ➔ For instance, is the ability to recognize, INTELLIGENCE levels of intelligence; is classify, and understand the plants and very similar to animals in one’s environment. Spearman’s concept of “g.” BROAD One of Carroll’s three INTELLIGENCE levels of intelligence: such as crystalized and fluid intelligence, memory, learning, and processing speed. NARROW One of Carroll’s three INTELLIGENCE levels of intelligence; includes many distinct abilities. PAGE 18 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE Intelligence Definition MENTAL AGE LINGUISTIC Ability to learn, understand, (Language) and use both spoken and ➔ The equivalent chronological age a child written language. (Poets, has reached based on his or her writers, lawyers, politician) performance on an IQ test. LOGICAL- Ability to analyze MATHEMATICAL information and problems logically and perform VERBAL SUBSCALES mathematical operations. (Scientists, engineers, SIMILARITIES An individual must think accountants) logically and abstractly to answer a number of MUSICAL Ability in performing, questions about how things composing or appreciating might be similar. musical patterns. (Musicians, dancers, song-writers) Example: “In what ways are boats and trains the same?” BODILY- Ability to use one’s body parts KINESTHETIC of it to solve problems or create COMPREHENSION products. (Athletes, dancers, This subscale is designed to mechanics, craftspeople) measure an individual’s judgment and common SPATIAL Ability to think about and solve sense. problems in three-dimensional space. (Navigators, pilots, Example: “Why do architects, sculptors) individuals buy automobile insurance?” INTERPERSONAL Ability to understand and be aware of other people’s intentions, motivation, thoughts, and desires; also the ability to work well with and get along with others. (Psychologists, social workers, teachers, politicians) INTRAPERSONAL Ability to be aware of understand, and regulate one’s own behavior, thoughts, feelings, and motivations. (Psychologist, monks, priests) NATURALISTIC Ability to recognize, classify, and understand the plants and animals in one’s environment. (Naturalists, biologists, botanists, veterinarians, hunters, farmers PAGE 19 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE NON-VERBAL SUBSCALES accurately measures what it purports to measure, such as intelligence, and not PICTURE A series of pictures out of something else, and the degree to which it ARRANGEMENT sequence is shown to an predicts real-world outcomes. individual, who is asked to Construct validity, Is the degree to which place them in their proper a test measures the concept it claims to order to tell an appropriate measure, such as intelligence. story. This subscale Predictive validity, is the degree to which evaluates how individuals intelligence test scores are positively integrate information to related to real-world outcomes, such as make it logical and school achievement or job success, and meaningful. thus have predictive value. Cultural test bias, Is the notion that Example: “The pictures group differences in IQ scores are caused below need to be placed in by different culture and educational an appropriate order to tell backgrounds, not by a real differences in a story intelligence. Test bias is a characteristic of a test that BLOCK DESIGN An individual must produces different outcomes for different assemble a set of groups. multicolored blocks Test fairness is a judgment about how to match designs that the test results are applied to different examiner shows. groups based on values and philosophical Visual-motor inclinations. coordination, perceptual organization, and the ability to visualize spatially are assessed. INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY Example: “Use the four blocks on ➔ Significant limitations in intellectual functioning as well as in everyday the left to make the pattern adaptive behavior, which start before age at the right.” 18. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF IQ TESTS Reliability, is the consistency of a ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR measurement, such as an intelligence test. ➔ Adjustment to and coping with everyday Test-retest reliability, is the consistency life. of scores on a test over time. Internal reliability, is a characteristic of an intelligence test in which questions on a given subtest tend to correlate very highly with other items on the subtest. Validity, is the degree to which a test PAGE 20 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY CONNECTOME DOWN SYNDROME A chromosomal disorder ➔ The map of all neural networks in the characterized by mild to human brain; the writing diagram of the profound intellectual brain. disability. FAMILIAL-CULTURAL Occurs when environmental INTELLECTUAL deprivation, such as neglect DISABILITY and poor nutrition, is to REACTION RANGE blame for some cases of milder intellectual disability. ➔ For a given trait, such as IQ, the Genetics play no role in this genetically determined range of form of disability. responses by an individual to his or her environment. SAVANT SYNDROME A very rare condition in which people with serious mental handicaps also show isolated areas of ability or REACTION RANGE AND INTELLIGENCE brilliance. ➔ The concept of reaction range suggests that heredity places upper and lower limits on an individual’s potential, but the GIFTEDNESS environment determines whether the individual reaches the upper limit or a ➔ Lies at the high end of the intelligence point somewhere between the upper limit spectrum. Starting in about the third and lower limit. grade in the United States, students who do very well in school and well on standardized tests of intelligence are TYPES OF PROBLEMS sometimes placed in “gifted” programs. In most schools, children are admitted CONVERGENT Problems that have known to such a program if they score THINKING solutions require analytic 130–140 or above on a standardized PROBLEMS thinking and the use of IQ test, such as the WISC or learned strategies and Stanford-Binet. knowledge to come up with the correct answer. DIVERGENT Problems that have no THINKING known solutions and require PRODIGY PROBLEMS novel solutions. ➔ A young person who is extremely gifted and precocious in one area and at least average in intelligence. PAGE 21 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE STAGES OF CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING SOLUTION STRATEGIES PREPARATION involves discovering and ALGORITHM A step-by-step procedure or defining the problem and formula for solving a then attempting to solve it. problem. INCUBATION putting the problem aside EUREKA INSIGHT A sudden solution that for a while and working on (INSIGHT SOLUTION) comes to mind in a flash. something else. THINKING OUTSIDE An approach to INSIGHT is a Eureka moment when THE BOX problem-solving that the solution comes requires breaking free of immediately to mind. self-imposed conceptual constraints and thinking ELABORATION- The solution, even if it has about a problem differently VERIFICATION the feeling of certainty, in order to solve it. still needs to be confirmed. How it is confirmed FIXATION The inability to break out of depends on what kind of a particular mind-set in task is involved. order to think about a problem from a fresh perspective. CREATIVE INSIGHT RESULTS IN INCREASED MENTAL SET A tendency to continue to FRONTAL AND PARIETAL LOBE ACTIVITY use problem-solving strategies that have worked ➔ The frontal lobes are active in abstract in the past, even if better reasoning, planning, focused working solutions are available memory, and the integration of sensory input. Creativity involves integrating FUNCTIONAL A mind-set in which one i s ideas in novel and valuable ways. It is not FIXEDNESS blind to unusual uses of surprising, therefore, that modern common, everyday, things or neuroscience supports the conclusion that procedures. creative problem-solving and insights involve frontal lobe activity. Recent research using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) examined whether greater neural CREATIVITY ➔ Thinking and/or behavior that is both novel–original and useful–and adaptive. PAGE 22 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE  Introduction to Psychology MIDTERM SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE CREATIVE INSIGHT RESULTS IN INCREASED FRONTAL AND PARIETAL LOBE ACTIVITY ➔ The frontal lobes are active in abstract reasoning, planning, focused working memory, and the integration of sensory input. Creativity involves integrating ideas in novel and valuable ways. It is not surprising, therefore, that modern neuroscience supports the conclusion that creative problem-solving and insights involve frontal lobe activity. Recent research using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) examined whether greater neural DEFAULT MODE NETWORK ➔ A brain network that consists of regions of the frontal and parietal lobes that are active when a person is not focused on anything in particular from the outside and becomes less active when a person is focused on a particular stimulus. FLEXIBILITY OF THOUGHT ➔ The ability to come up with many different categories of ideas and think of other responses besides the obvious one. ORIGINALITY ➔ The ability to come up with unusual and novel ideas. PAGE 23 SEMESTER 1 - 1ST YEAR - MA’AM BONNEVIE