Introduction to Psychology Chapter 10: Consciousness PDF

Introduction to Psychology, 12e Chapter 10: Consciousness James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied...

Introduction to Psychology, 12e Chapter 10: Consciousness James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 1  Chapter Objectives (1 of 4) By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 10.01 Explain why early psychologists abandoned the study of consciousness and why new developments now make such a study possible. 10.02 List methods of presenting a stimulus while preventing conscious perception of it. 10.03 Describe how brain activity varies depending on whether a stimulus is consciously perceived. 10.04 Cite evidence that the brain processes some information unconsciously. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 2  Chapter Objectives (2 of 4) By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 10.05 Discuss cases in which people in a vegetative state showed evidence of consciousness. 10.06 Evaluate evidence that brain activity responsible for a movement begins before the conscious decision to make that movement. 10.07 Describe how circadian rhythms affect alertness and other functions. 10.08 Cite evidence that the brain processes some information unconsciously. 10.09 Distinguish between morning and evening people. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 3  Chapter Objectives (3 of 4) By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 10.10 Discuss the consequences of jet lag and shift work. 10.11 Explain the brain mechanisms that control the circadian rhythm. 10.12 List functions of sleep. 10.13 Describe the stages of sleep, including REM sleep. 10.14 Discuss insomnia and other sleep problems. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 4  Chapter Objectives (4 of 4) By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 10.15 Evaluate theories of dreaming. 10.16 Describe methods of inducing hypnosis. 10.17 List uses of hypnosis that the evidence supports, and those that it does not support. 10.18 Describe evidence that hypnosis does not improve memory. 10.19 Discuss whether we should regard hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 5  Unit 1 Conscious and Unconscious Processes James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 6  Measuring Consciousness Researchers use the following operational definition of consciousness: “If a cooperative person reports being aware of one stimulus and not of another, then he or she was conscious of the first and not the second.” Limited, answerable research questions: Why does consciousness exist? Does it have elements, analogous to the elements of chemistry? What does it accomplish? James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 7  Modern Methods to Measure Brain Activity Electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) Simplest methods of measuring noninvasive brain activity. Detectors on scalp measure rapid changes in electrical or magnet activity. Approximate location of brain activity is measured. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Identifies location of activity more precisely than EEG and MEG. Less precise measurement of timing. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 8  Ways of Controlling Consciousness of a Stimulus Masking is a procedure of preceding or following a stimulus with an interfering pattern that might prevent consciousness of the stimulus. Flash suppression is a procedure of blocking consciousness of a stationary visual stimulus by surrounding it with rapidly flashing items. Attentional blink occurs when your attention to a first stimulus blocks notice of a second stimulus. Binocular rivalry is an alteration between seeing a pattern in the left retina and the pattern in a right retina. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 9  Brain Activity, Conscious or Unconscious When someone is conscious of a stimulus The stimulus activates neurons more strongly. Their activity reverberates through other brain areas. That activity rebounds to magnify the original response. The process inhibits responses to competing stimuli. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 10  Unconscious Processing of a Suppressed Stimulus The brain processes stimuli even without consciousness, enough to evaluate their importance. Unconscious processes are an important part of cognition. The brain notices that which is meaningful or important to you before you become conscious of it. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 11  Consciousness As an all-or-none phenomenon Either the brain activity spreads strongly through the brain, or it does not. As a construction Conscious experience of a stimulus is a construction that can occur slightly after the stimulus itself, rather than simultaneously with it. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 12  Can We Use Brain Measurements to Infer Consciousness? (1 of 2) Physicians distinguish various gradations of brain activity that relate to arousal, responsiveness, and presumed consciousness. Brain death: The brain shows no activity and no response to any stimulus. Coma: The brain shows a steady but low level of activity and no response to any stimulus. Vegetative state: Limited responsiveness to stimuli, such as increased heart rate in response to pain. Minimally conscious state: Brief periods of purposeful actions and speech comprehension. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 13  Can We Use Brain Measurements to Infer Consciousness? (2 of 2) Brain scans provide suggestions of consciousness in certain patients who seem unresponsive to their environment. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 14  Consciousness and Action When people report the time of a conscious decision to make a movement, brain scans indicate the brain activity responsible for the movement began before the reported time of the conscious decision. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 15  How Well Can We Measure the Time of a Conscious Decision? People do not accurately report their decision times, according to research. Voluntary decisions are gradual, not sudden. Movement we make in response to a stimulus differ from movements we make spontaneously. Spontaneous movements are almost always slower and gradual. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 16  What Is the Purpose of Consciousness? Various theories of consciousness: Consciousness is an epiphenomenon; an accidental by-product with no purpose. Consciousness is a way of rehearing possibilities for future actions. You cannot have consciousness without brain activity, but you also cannot have certain brain activity without consciousness. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 17  Unit 2 Sleep and Dreams James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 18  Circadian Rhythms (1 of 2) Rhythm of activity and inactivity lasting approximately one day The rising and setting of the sun provide cues to reset our rhythm, but we generate the rhythm ourselves. Circadian rhythm controls more than sleeping and waking: Hunger and thirst Alertness Urine production Body temperature Blood pressure Mood James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 19  Morning People and Evening People People vary in their circadian rhythms. Some people arouse quickly and reach their peak alertness early. Others increase alertness more slowly and reach their peak in late afternoon or early evening. Most young adults are either evening people or intermediate, whereas most people over age 65 are morning people. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 20  Knowledge Activity Check Dirk always does better on exams when he takes them in the morning than during other times of the day. What might account for that? a. Ability to maintain better attention in the morning b. Increased ability to handle stress c. Less distraction d. Superior cognitive ability James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 21  Knowledge Activity Check: Answer Dirk always does better on exams when he takes them in the morning. What might account for that? a. Ability to maintain better attention in the morning On average, morning-type students maintain attention better in the morning, do better on tests in the morning, and get better grades, even when compared to evening-type students with the same cognitive ability and motivation. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 22  Shifting Sleep Schedules (1 of 2) Jet lag is a period of discomfort and inefficiency while your internal clock is out of phase with your new surrounding. Most people suffer jet lag when traveling east than when traveling west. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 23  Shifting Sleep Schedules (2 of 2) The sun rules internal clocks even when sleep schedules change: Daylight savings time Shift work Rotating shifts James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 24  Brain Mechanisms of Circadian Rhythms The suprachiasmatic nucleus generates an approximately 24-hour rhythm. Sunlight does not generate this rhythm, but it does reset it. The suprachiasmatic nucleus exerts its control partly by regulating the pineal gland’s secretions of the hormone melatonin, which is important for circadian rhythms. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 25  Knowledge Check Activity What is the role of sunlight in circadian rhythms? a. It sets the circadian rhythm in the suprachiasmatic nucleus b. It generates circadian rhythm when we travel c. It resets the internal clock causing you to wake up with sunlight d. It tells retinal cells to respond to changes in light James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 26  Knowledge Check Activity: Answer What is the role of sunlight in circadian rhythms? c. It resets the internal clock causing you to wake up with sunlight Although the SCN generates a circadian rhythm, light resets the internal clock, causing you to wake up more or less in synchrony with the sunlight. Special ganglion cells in the nose side of the retina respond to the average amount of bright light over a period of time, and send their output to the SCN, unlike the retinal cells that respond to instantaneous changes in light and send their output to the visual cortex. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 27  Why We Sleep Sleep serves several functions, including: Conservation of energy An opportunity to strengthen learning and memory Sleep-deprived people have difficulty maintaining attention. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 28  Sleep Cycles During the Night (1 of 3) Stage 1 Stage 2 Slow-Wave Sleep Eyes nearly Marked by sleep Long, slow waves indicate motionless. spindles, which are decreased brain activity. important for memory. EEG shows short, Can be divided into stages choppy waves that 3 and 4. indicate brain activity. After slow-wave sleep, sleeper returns to stage 2. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 29  Sleep Cycles During the Night (2 of 3) James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 30  Sleep Cycles During the Night (3 of 3) James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 31  Sleep Problems (1 of 2) Insomnia Sleep Apnea Not getting enough sleep to feel Failure to breathe for a minute or rested the next day. more during sleep and wake up gasping for breath. Set a regular schedule for sleep and wake. Sleep apnea is most common in overweight middle-aged men whose Spend time in the sun to reset breathing passages become narrower circadian rhythms. than usual. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 32  Sleep Problems (2 of 2) Narcolepsy Other Sleep Experiences Condition characterized by sudden Sleep talking attacks of sleepiness during the day. Sleep walking Maybe caused by loss of brain cells Lucid dreaming that produce orexin. Has a genetic predisposition. Periodic limb movement disorder Night terrors James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 33  Descriptive Studies of Dreaming Dreams differ among cultures in several ways. For example: People in the United States often dream of people they don’t know People in India, Iran, and Japan more often dream of people they know. Hunter-gatherer societies dream of animals. People in dangerous societies have dreams of violent aggression. More dreams are threatening than pleasant. Most dreams are similar to our thoughts in everyday life, not what we do. People who are blind also dream but may dream differently people with sight. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 34  Freud’s Theory of Dreams Freud maintained that dreams reveal unconscious thoughts and motivations. Dreams have hidden meanings. Manifest content is content that appears on the surface of a dream. Latent content includes hidden ideas that the dream experience represents symbolically. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 35  Modern Theories of Dreaming Activation-Synthesis Theory Neurocognitive Theory Cortex takes activity that occurs Dreaming is a kind of thinking similar during REM sleep, plus stimuli that to daydreaming or mind wandering. strike the sense organs and does its Occurs with reduced sensory best to make sense of this activity. stimulation, reduced prefrontal cortex Bottom-up processing beginning with activity. sensation random activation. Top-down process, controlled by same mechanism as any other thought. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 36  Knowledge Check Activity Which theory of dreaming indicates that dreams reveal the dreamer’s unconscious thoughts and motivations? a. Freud’s theory of dreams b. Activation-synthesis theory of dreams c. Neurocognitive theory of dreams James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 37  Knowledge Check Activity: Answer Which theory of dreaming indicates that dreams reveal the dreamer’s unconscious thoughts and motivations? a. Freud’s theory of dreams Sigmund Freud maintained that dreams reveal the dreamer’s unconscious thoughts and motivations. To understand a dream, he said, one must probe for hidden meanings. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 38  Unit 3 Hypnosis James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 39  Ways of Inducing Hypnosis Hypnosis is a condition of focused attention and increased suggestibility that occurs in the context of a special hypnotist–subject relationship. A person must be cooperative and follow the hypnotist’s suggestions of relaxation. Believing you are being hypnotized is a big step in actually being hypnotized. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 40  The Uses and Limitations of Hypnosis What Hypnosis Can Do What Hypnosis Does Not Do Inhibits pain. Does not give people special strength or unusual powers. Posthypnotic suggestion is a suggestion to do or experience It does not improve memory something after coming out of accuracy. hypnosis. When asked to report their memories Posthypnotic suggestions help some under hypnosis, people report a people break unwanted habits. mixture of correct and incorrect information with much confidence. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 41  Is Hypnosis an Altered State of Consciousness? Hypnosis is not greatly different from normal wakefulness, but it is also not just something that people pretend. People pretending to be hypnotized can mimic almost any effect of hypnosis that they know about. Differences between hypnotized people and pretenders: Pretenders did not always know how a hypnotized subject would act Those totally unaware of their surrounds are almost always pretenders James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 42  Other States of Consciousness Meditation is a systematic procedure for inducing a calm, relaxed state using special techniques. Increases relaxation, decreases anxiety, and enhances attention. Déjà vu experience is a feeling that an event is uncannily familiar In some cases (probably not all), it relates to abnormal activity in brain areas responsible for memory. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 43  Self- Assessment Can you describe consciousness and how it spreads? Outline the four measures of detecting consciousness in unresponsive people. Describe how circadian rhythms are set and how we adjust to changes in those rhythms. Outline brain and sleep activity in each of the four sleep stages. Describe the nature of hypnosis and how to tell when one has achieved a state of hypnosis. How can you use your knowledge of meditation in the future? James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 44  Summary (1 of 4) Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to: Explain why early psychologists abandoned the study of consciousness and why new developments now make such a study possible. List methods of presenting a stimulus while preventing conscious perception of it. Describe how brain activity varies depending on whether a stimulus is consciously perceived. Cite evidence that the brain processes some information unconsciously. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 45  Summary (2 of 4) Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to: Discuss cases in which people in a vegetative state showed evidence of consciousness. Evaluate evidence that brain activity responsible for a movement begins before the conscious decision to make that movement. Describe how circadian rhythms affect alertness and other functions. Cite evidence that the brain processes some information unconsciously. Distinguish between morning and evening people. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 46  Summary (3 of 4) Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to: Discuss the consequences of jet lag and shift work. Explain the brain mechanisms that control the circadian rhythm. List functions of sleep. Describe the stages of sleep, including REM sleep. Discuss insomnia and other sleep problems. Evaluate theories of dreaming. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 47  Summary (4 of 4) Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to: Describe methods of inducing hypnosis. List uses of hypnosis that the evidence supports, and those that it does not support. Describe evidence that hypnosis does not improve memory. Discuss whether we should regard hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness. James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 48