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Questions and Answers
What primarily regulates circadian rhythms in the body?
What primarily regulates circadian rhythms in the body?
Which sleep stage is characterized by rapid eye movements and vivid dreams?
Which sleep stage is characterized by rapid eye movements and vivid dreams?
What is a possible consequence of sleep debt?
What is a possible consequence of sleep debt?
Which of the following is NOT classified as a type of parasomnia?
Which of the following is NOT classified as a type of parasomnia?
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What role does bright light therapy play?
What role does bright light therapy play?
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What is narcolepsy characterized by?
What is narcolepsy characterized by?
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Why is sleep believed to be important despite its exact purpose being unclear?
Why is sleep believed to be important despite its exact purpose being unclear?
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What accounts for the body's adaptation to drugs leading to withdrawal symptoms?
What accounts for the body's adaptation to drugs leading to withdrawal symptoms?
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What is an example of a depressant?
What is an example of a depressant?
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Which type of learning occurs through consequences of behavior?
Which type of learning occurs through consequences of behavior?
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What occurs during classical conditioning as demonstrated in Pavlov's experiments?
What occurs during classical conditioning as demonstrated in Pavlov's experiments?
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What is the primary function of reinforcement in operant conditioning?
What is the primary function of reinforcement in operant conditioning?
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What type of drug is nicotine classified as?
What type of drug is nicotine classified as?
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What is a key characteristic of hypnosis?
What is a key characteristic of hypnosis?
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Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with stimulants like cocaine?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with stimulants like cocaine?
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What effect do hallucinogens have on an individual?
What effect do hallucinogens have on an individual?
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Which type of memory is primarily unconscious and includes skills and habits?
Which type of memory is primarily unconscious and includes skills and habits?
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What is the function of the hippocampus in the memory process?
What is the function of the hippocampus in the memory process?
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What does proactive interference refer to in memory recall?
What does proactive interference refer to in memory recall?
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Which part of the brain is primarily involved with emotional memories?
Which part of the brain is primarily involved with emotional memories?
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What is a flashbulb memory?
What is a flashbulb memory?
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Which of the following is NOT one of Schacter's Seven Memory Errors?
Which of the following is NOT one of Schacter's Seven Memory Errors?
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How can mnemonic devices assist in memory enhancement?
How can mnemonic devices assist in memory enhancement?
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What role does adequate sleep play in memory?
What role does adequate sleep play in memory?
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What does functional fixedness refer to?
What does functional fixedness refer to?
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Which of the following is NOT a component of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of intelligence?
Which of the following is NOT a component of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of intelligence?
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What type of intelligence does Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory NOT specifically address?
What type of intelligence does Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory NOT specifically address?
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Which intelligence test was developed first?
Which intelligence test was developed first?
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How can the environment influence intelligence?
How can the environment influence intelligence?
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Which of the following describes learning disabilities?
Which of the following describes learning disabilities?
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What is the primary role of memory encoding?
What is the primary role of memory encoding?
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What does the Bell Curve represent in the context of intelligence?
What does the Bell Curve represent in the context of intelligence?
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What type of punishment involves removing a desirable stimulus?
What type of punishment involves removing a desirable stimulus?
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Which reinforcement schedule provides reward after an unpredictable number of responses?
Which reinforcement schedule provides reward after an unpredictable number of responses?
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What is the first step in Albert Bandura's theory of observational learning?
What is the first step in Albert Bandura's theory of observational learning?
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What term describes clusters of related concepts that help organize information?
What term describes clusters of related concepts that help organize information?
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Which strategy involves following a specific step-by-step procedure to guarantee a solution?
Which strategy involves following a specific step-by-step procedure to guarantee a solution?
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How does language influence thought and perception?
How does language influence thought and perception?
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What is a common roadblock to problem solving that involves sticking to outdated strategies?
What is a common roadblock to problem solving that involves sticking to outdated strategies?
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Which of the following describes the predictable sequence through which language acquisition occurs?
Which of the following describes the predictable sequence through which language acquisition occurs?
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Study Notes
Consciousness and Sleep
- Consciousness is our awareness of both internal and external stimuli.
- Biological rhythms are natural cycles in our body's chemistry or functions.
- Circadian rhythms are 24-hour biological cycles regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
- Light is a crucial cue for aligning our circadian rhythms with the external environment.
- Sleep debt can lead to adverse mental and physical consequences like decreased alertness and impaired cognitive function.
Stages of Sleep
- Stage 1 involves transitioning from wakefulness to sleep, marked by alpha waves turning into theta waves.
- Stage 2 is characterized by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
- Stages 3 and 4 (slow-wave sleep) are dominated by delta waves.
- REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements, muscle paralysis, and vivid dreams. It plays a crucial role in learning and memory.
Sleep Problems and Disorders
- Insomnia is the difficulty falling or staying asleep.
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Parasomnias are undesirable behaviors during sleep, including:
- REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)
- Sleepwalking
- Restless leg syndrome
- Night terrors
- Sleep apnea involves breathing interruptions during sleep.
- Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) occurs when infants stop breathing during sleep.
- Narcolepsy involves sudden sleep attacks during the day, often accompanied by cataplexy (muscle weakness) and hallucinations.
Substance Use and Abuse
- Substance use disorder refers to compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences.
- Physical dependence involves the body adapting to a drug, leading to tolerance and withdrawal.
- Psychological dependence describes an emotional or mental attachment to the drug.
- Depressants like alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines affect GABA neurotransmission.
- Stimulants like cocaine and amphetamines increase dopamine neurotransmission.
- Nicotine and caffeine influence acetylcholine and adenosine.
- Opiates like morphine and heroin act on the endogenous opioid system for pain relief.
- Hallucinogens affect perception and alter sensory experiences.
Other States of Consciousness
- Hypnosis is a state of focused attention with increased suggestibility.
- Meditation is a practice involving focused awareness and relaxation.
- Both hypnosis and meditation can be used to treat psychological and physical conditions.
Learning
- Learning results in a change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.
- Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors that do not involve learning.
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Types of learning:
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
- Observational learning
Classical Conditioning
- Pavlov's experiments showed that a neutral stimulus can elicit a conditioned response when paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
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Key concepts:
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response.
- Unconditioned response (UCR): The natural reaction to UCS.
- Conditioned stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after being associated with UCS.
- Conditioned response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
- John B. Watson and Little Albert: Demonstrated that fears could be conditioned through associations.
Operant Conditioning
- B.F. Skinner's work: Operant conditioning focuses on learning based on the consequences of behavior.
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Reinforcement and Punishment:
- Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Positive reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus.
- Negative reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus.
- Positive punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus.
- Negative punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus.
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Reinforcement Schedules:
- Fixed interval: Reinforcement after a set time period.
- Variable interval: Reinforcement after a variable time period.
- Fixed ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
- Variable ratio: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.
Observational Learning (Modeling)
- Albert Bandura's theory: Learning by watching others and imitating their actions.
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Steps in observational learning:
- Attention: Paying attention to the model.
- Retention: Remembering what was observed.
- Reproduction: Reproducing the observed behavior.
- Motivation: Having a reason to imitate the behavior.
- Impact of modeling: Individuals learn both positive and negative behaviors by observing others.
Cognition
- Cognitive psychology studies how the brain thinks, perceives, plans, analyzes, and remembers.
- Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
- Prototypes are the best examples or representations of a concept.
- Schemata are clusters of related concepts that help us organize and interpret information.
Language
- Language is a communication system using symbols (lexicon) and rules for combining them (grammar).
- Language acquisition occurs naturally and follows a predictable sequence in early development stages.
- Language influences thought: Language can shape our thinking and perceptions of the world.
Problem Solving
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Strategies:
- Trial and error: Trying different solutions until the problem is solved.
- Algorithms: Step-by-step problem-solving formulas that guarantee a solution.
- Heuristics: General problem-solving frameworks or shortcuts.
- Breaking down problems: Solving large problems by dividing them into smaller, manageable steps.
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Roadblocks to problem solving:
- Mental set: Relying on old strategies that may not work for new problems.
- Functional fixedness: Difficulty seeing an object being used for anything other than its intended purpose.
- Biases: Cognitive biases can affect decision-making skills.
Intelligence and Creativity
- Intelligence is a complex cognitive ability involving reasoning, problem-solving, and learning.
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Theories of intelligence:
- Sternberg's triarchic theory: Includes analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
- Gardner's multiple intelligences: Proposes that intelligence is made up of several distinct factors (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial).
- Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to understand and manage one's own emotions and recognize the emotions of others.
- Creativity is the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas or solutions.
Measures of Intelligence
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History of intelligence testing:
- Binet: Developed one of the first intelligence tests.
- Wechsler Scales: WAIS-IV (for adults) and WISC-V (for children) are widely used today.
- The bell curve represents the distribution of intelligence test scores, showing average intelligence and standard deviations.
The Source of Intelligence
- Genetics and environment: Intelligence is influenced by both genetic factors and early environmental stimulation.
- Resiliency: Highly intelligent individuals may be better at overcoming adverse conditions.
- Learning disabilities: Neurological conditions that affect specific areas of learning.
- Developmental disabilities: Differ from learning disabilities in that they are related to overall intelligence levels.
Memory
- Memory is a system that stores information learned for future use.
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Basic functions of memory:
- Encoding: Getting information into the memory system.
- Storage: Retaining encoded information over time.
- Retrieval: Accessing information from storage.
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Describes memory as a three-stage process:
- Sensory memory: Brief retention of environmental stimuli.
- Short-term memory (STM): Holds information for immediate use.
- Long-term memory (LTM): Stores information permanently.
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Types of long-term memory:
- Implicit memory: Unconscious memory (e.g., skills, habits).
- Explicit memory: Conscious memory (e.g., facts, events).
Brain Areas Involved in Memory
- Engram: The theoretical physical trace of memory, distributed throughout the brain.
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Key brain areas in memory:
- Amygdala: Involved in emotional memories.
- Hippocampus: Critical for encoding new memories.
- Cerebellum: Processes procedural memories (e.g., motor skills).
- Flashbulb memory: Highly detailed, vivid memories of significant life events.
Problems with Memory
- Forgetting: Can occur due to brain trauma, disease, or amnesia.
- Encoding failure: Information never stored properly.
- Schacter's seven memory errors: Transience, absentmindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence.
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Interference:
- Proactive interference: Old information interferes with learning new information.
- Retroactive interference: New information hinders the recall of previously learned information.
- Eyewitness testimony: Often unreliable due to the flexible and fallible nature of memory.
Enhancing Memory
- Mnemonic devices: Techniques like acronyms and visualization to aid memory.
- Rehearsal: Repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in memory.
- Self-referencing: Relating new information to oneself.
- Adequate sleep: Crucial for memory consolidation and overall cognitive function.
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Description
Explore the fascinating topics of consciousness and sleep in this quiz. Learn about biological rhythms, stages of sleep, and common sleep disorders. Test your knowledge on how these elements affect our mental and physical well-being.
