PSYC3430 Ch.6 - Structure PDF

What Is Group Structure Group processes are shaped by influential group structures (unobservable & observable) that dictate conduct in a group, expectations about member’s roles, and networks of connections among the members Group Structure The complex set of relations that organises the group into...

What Is Group Structure Group processes are shaped by influential group structures (unobservable & observable) that dictate conduct in a group, expectations about member’s roles, and networks of connections among the members Group Structure The complex set of relations that organises the group into an integrated whole. They are relatively fixed, determined by norms, roles, and intermember relations and communication. Group Structure Uses Can create strong bonds, they can be long lasting, and resistant to change. Understanding group structure allows us to understand behaviour, values, mission, goals. Structure governs us each day - how we think, behave, socialise. Despite widespread differences in groups, structure often makes interpersonal situations quite predictable. What are norms? Emergent (self-organising), consensual and often implicit standards that describe what behaviours should and should not be performed in a given context. Deliberately designed (the cement of our society, Elster, 1989, p. 251). Components of Norms Implicit and explicit. Provides direction and motivation. Regulates behaviour. Often tells us what is normal behaviour. Can also lead to conformity/compliance, groupthink, power. Norms Prescribe the socially appropriate way to respond in the situation - the normal course of action. Both consensual and internalised. Groups can either promote or threaten members' health depending on their norms. Characteristics and Types Of Norms prescriptive, proscriptive, descriptive, injunctive, descriptive, consensual, informal, implicit, self-generating, and stable. Prescriptive norm A consensual standard that identifies preferable, positively sanctioned behaviours. Normal course of action (encouraged) - eg saying thank you when you get a gift. Proscriptive norm A consensual standard that identifies prohibited, negatively sanctioned behaviours (discouraged). Ex; in Canada kissing a stranger vs in Greece. Descriptive norm A consensual standard that describes how people typically act, feel, and think in a given situation. It is an observation made by the individual - most likely happens. Ex; walking around campus with a laptop, bookbag, etc., students drinking on campus. Injunctive norm An evaluative consensual standard that describes how people should act, feel, and think in a given situation rather than how people do act, feel, and think in that situation. These are open sanctions (ought/thought) - need for social approval? Descriptive Norms Describe how most members think, act, and feel. Consensual Norms Shared among group members, rather than personal, individual-level beliefs. Informal Norms Describe the unwritten rules of conduct in a group. Implicit Norms Often so taken for granted that members follow them automatically. Self-generating Norms Emerge as members reach a consensus through reciprocal influence. Stable Norms Once they develop, resistant to change and passed from current members to new members. Internalisation of Norms Not simply externalized rules but internalized standards. Comply with group norms because they want to, not because they have too. Stanley Milgram Subway Experiment Asked students to perform counter-normative behaviour by asking someone for their seat on the NYC subway. People gave up their seats because the request took them by surprise and they wanted to avoid interaction, or because they normalised the situation by concluding that the requester was ill. All those who performed counter-normative behaviour experienced severe emotional turmoil as they approached the situation. Milgram Subway Conclusion There is an enormous inhibitory anxiety that ordinarily prevents us from breaching social norms. Organisational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) Behaviour that goes beyond what is expected. Altruism and generalised compliance. Is it genuine? Do injunctive norms influence responses Altruism Helpful behaviours directed toward individuals or groups within the organisation. Generalised compliance Behaviour that is helpful to the broader organisation. Sherif’s (1936) Autokinetic Effect Studies Subjects judged a distance of a dot that moved in a darkened room (the dot never actually moved = autokinetic effect). When other subjects joined; initially, estimates differ, but over 3 trials, they converge and did not change when asked independently => group norm emerged. Sherif then put in confederates who made exaggerated distance judgments => others conformed to these judgements and persisted for 5 generations. Sherif’s Study Confirmation Confirmed that norms emerge gradually, as group members beliefs, behaviours, and attitudes align over time. Even though other group members were not present, the individual's judgement was still consistent with group’s norms => they had internalised the norm. Autokinetic Effect the perceived movement of light upon a dark background with no comparison. The stationary dot of light will seem to move. Why Do People Conform? Informational and normative influence. Conformity Tendency for people to adopt the behaviour and opinions presented by other group members Informational Influence conform because of wanting to be correct & understand the right way to act. Desire to be right. Normative Influence Conformity due to wanting to be liked and accepted by others. Eating disorders linked to normative processes. pluralistic ignorance When members of a group privately vary in outlook and expectations, but publicly they all act similarly because they believe that they are the only ones whose personal views are different from the rest of the group. Members may privately disagree with the norm, but they assume they are the only ones who do, and so the norm remains in place. Influence of Group Norms For a group norm to have influence, it must be recognized and accepted by self and other group members. Social tuning. Norms of any group vary importance for individuals. Lower level of importance generally has less adherence. Less members identify with the norm = decreased performance. Result : Generation paradigm. social tuning When individuals actions become similar to the actions of those around them (Lun, 2007). Generation Paradigm SNorms are self-generating and stable - they often resist revision. Norms and Health Influence a wide range of group processes, including unhealthy behaviours such as alcohol consumption, overeating, and eating disorders. Individuals consume more alcohol when their group norms support overindulgence. In some cases, individuals misperceive their group’s norms, and this pluralistic ignorance can further contribute to alcohol consumption. Crandall (19880 documented the influence of norms in his study of eating disorders. Roles The types of behaviours expected of individuals who occupy particular positions within the group. Independent of individuals - these are responsibilities specific to the tole and the group (eg ONET). Flexible to an extent - each person may play the role differently, but does not stray too much. Fulfil 2 basic needs; task ach. And social). People prefer roles that are satisfying, meaningful, and prestigious. Structure Interaction Create patterns of action between the person playing the role (eg biker gangs, Andres Group, Chilean Miners) Role differentiation An increase in the number of roles in a group, accompanied by a gradual decrease in the scope of these roles as each one becomes more narrowly defined and specialised. The emergence and patterning of role-related actions. Ex; Stanford Prison Study - Zimbardo) = formal vs. informal. Role Differentiation Cont Groups deliberately create groups to organise the group to help with goal attainment. As the group develops more roles emerge (need to adapt?). Roles tend to become specialised over time - work out the requirements of the role through enacting the role. Informal Norms In time group members will begin to form specific types of actions and interact with others in a particular way. Occurs even without a deliberate attempt of creating formal group structure. task role Any position in a group occupied by a member who performs behaviours that centre on tasks and activities, such as initiating structure, providing task-related feedback, and setting goals. Pertain to the work of the group. relationship role Any position in a group occupied by a member who performs behaviours that improve the nature and quality of interpersonal relations among members, such as showing concern for the feelings of others, reducing conflict, and enhancing feelings of satisfaction and trust in the group. Pertain to the relations among members. Task and relationship Roles Demands tend to be incompatible with one another. People have difficulty playing both types of roles => Why? When group members are task oriented, they must direct others to act in certain ways, restrict other’s opinions, criticise other members, and prompt them to action. Others may react negatively to these task-oriented activities, so they then look to others in the group for socioemotional, relationship support. Outcome; task and relationship roles are a natural consequence of these 2 party conflicting demands. Peacekeeper intercedes and tries to maintain harmony is the relationship specialist. Bales identified these tendencies by tracking role-differentiation in decision-making groups across 4 sessions. Used his interaction process analysis (IPA)system to identify specific types of behaviour within the groups. Half of the categories focus on the the task-oriented behaviours and the other half focus on relationship behaviours. Most gravitate to one of the two categories . Those who took on a task role (the ideal man) offered mostly suggestions and expressed opinions. Those who gravitated towards the relationship role (best-liked man) showed solidarity, more tension release, and greater agreement with other members. Functional Theory of Roles - Benne & Sheats (1948) Identified 27 distinct roles in discussion groups, including task, relationship, and individualistic roles. Roles exist in groups to fulfil their interpersonal and personal needs. Suggest that for a group to survive, it must meet 2 demands; accomplish its task and relationships among members must be maintained. Interactionist Theory of Roles - The patterning and behaviour that constitutes roles arises initially and reoccurs out of the dynamics of group interactions. Goffman (1959) analysis of impression management in their description of the dynamic processes involved in role negotiation. Becky (2006) applied this model to her analysis of production crews. Goffman Impression Management/self-presentation Influencing other people’s social perceptions by selectively revealing personal information to them; includes both deliberate and unintentional attempts to establish, maintain, or refine the impression that others have. role-taking Perceiving the role requirements of the self and of other group members’ roles, by taking their perspective; also, the enactment of a role within a group. Role enactment and Role sending. Role enactment displaying behaviours as part of one’s role in the group Role sending the transmission of one’s expectations about what kinds of behaviours are expected of people who occupy particular roles. Dynamic Theory of Roles Freud - Suggests out actions when in a group are based, in part, on our rational plans, motives, and goals, but also on unconscious interpersonal and psychological processes that are largely unrecognised. Moxins draws on Freud’s theory to identify the deep roles in groups, such as “mother” and “father”. Replacement Hypothesis Suggests that in highly cohesive groups, the other group members come to take the place of our siblings, so the emotional ties that bind us to our groups are like the binds that tie children to family Bales Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG) Procedure that looks at communication and structure of group. Bale expended IPA model and identified 3 key dimensions 3 Key dimension in SYMLOG 1. Dominance/submissivenes (Up vs Down). 2. Friendliness or unfriendliness (Positive vs Negative). 3. Acceptance of authority/nonacceptance of authority (Forward vs Backward). Dominance/submissiveness: Is this member active, outgoing, and talkative or passive, quiet, and introverted? (dominance is Up, submissive is Down.). About leadership and authority. Friendliness or unfriendliness: Is this member warm, open, and positive or negative and irritable? (friendliness is Positive, unfriendliness is Negative.). About emotions and affect. Acceptance or nonacceptance of task-oriented authority: Is this member analytic and task-oriented or emotional, nontraditional, and (in some cases) resentful? (acceptance of the task-orientation of established authority is Forward, nonacceptance is Backward.) Cooperative/PF = Cooperative, reasonable, constructive, collaborative, responsible idealism, ikes authority in a friendly way. Resistant/NF = Rule oriented, insistent, inflexible, restraining individual desires for organisational goals, self sacrificing, conforming. Cynical/NB = Cynical/pessimistic, uncooperative, pessimistic, rejection of rules and conformity, alienated Likeable/PB = Likeable, affectionate, enjoyable, friendship, mutual pleasure, recreation. SYMLOG History Assessment initially developed through 45 years of research (Bales) in the Department of Psychology and Social Relations at Harvard University. Purpose was to better understand effective leadership, group dynamics, structure, and superior team performance. 26 basic value rolesextended the task and social of IPA - what values do people of groups have? Created in 1970. Assessed thousands of individuals (self or raters) and groups. Overtime most effective profiles emerge of a task oriented leader. group socialisation A pattern of change in the relationship between an individual and a group that begins when an individual first considers joining the group and ends when he or she leaves it. Issues in Group Socialization Negotiation of roles between the group and the individual - mutual process (group member assimilates and the group adapts). The role of a member is not easy, especially for new ones. New members sometimes act in ways that show socialisation (e.g. may take on a role that they do not like). People often seek roles in a group that empowers them, but the group may not permit them to occupy the role. Even full fledged members experience stress. Debt and credits. Moreland and Levine’s Group Socialization Theory How the relationship between groups and individuals change over time. It is reciprocal - i.e The group influences the individual and the individual influences the group. The model helps to clarify the changes (affective, cognitive, and behavioural). Curved lines represent members' gradual increase and eventual decrease to the commitment of the group. Components in Group Socialization 1. Types of Members 2. Phases. 3. Processes. 4. Transition Points Types of Members Prospective, new, full, marginal, and former (ex-member) Phases 1. Investigation 2. Socialisation 3. Maintenance 4. resocialization, and 5. remembrance Processes 1. Recruitment/reconnaissance 2. accommodation/assimilation 3. role negotiation 4. tradition/reminiscence Transition Points 1. Entry, 2. Acceptance 3. Divergence 4. exit Role Stress Can occur from role ambiguity, role conflict - both interrole and itrarole-, and role fit. role ambiguity Unclear expectations about the behaviors to be performed by an individual occupying a particular position within the group caused by a lack of clarity in the role itself, a lack of consensus within the group regarding the behaviours associated with the role, or the individual role taker’s uncertainty with regard to the types of behaviours expected by others. Occupant = role enactor or role taker. Rest of group = role senders. Ex; MHS Restructuring. role conflict A state of tension, distress, or uncertainty caused by inconsistent or discordant expectations associated with one’s role in the group. 2 types interrole and intrarole conflict. Interrole conflict A form of role conflict that occurs when someone plays multiple roles within a group and the expectations and behaviours associated with one of their roles are not consistent with the expectations and behaviours associated with another of their roles. intrarole conflict A form of role conflict that occurs when the behaviours that make up a single role are incongruous, often resulting from inconsistent expectations on the part of the person who occupies the role and other members of the group. Ex; Middle managers. role fit The degree of congruence between the demands of a specific role and the attitudes, values, skills, and other characteristics of the individual who occupies the role. Many people leave groups because of role fit. Roles and Well Being Role stress is associated with negative psychological and interpersonal outcomes, including heightened levels of tension, employee turnover, absenteeism, interpersonal conflict within the group, and declines in job satisfaction and performance quality. Also leads to decline in family and work satisfaction. Negative health consequences. status differentiation The gradual rise of some group members to positions of greater authority, accompanied by decreases in the authority exercised by other members. sociometric differentiation The development of stronger and more positive interpersonal ties between some members of the group, accompanied by decreases in the quality of relations between other members of the group. balance theory An analysis of social relations that assumes relationships can be either balanced (integrated units with elements that fit together without stress) or unbalanced (inconsistent units with elements that conflict with one another). Unbalanced relationships create an unpleasant tension that must be relieved by changing some element of the system (developed by Fritz Heider). communication network Patterns of information transmission and exchange that describe who communicates most frequently and to what extent with whom i.e where does the information flow. May be formal or informal. Some groups adopt centralised (simple) vs decentralised (complex). Formal Communication in communication networks A performance review, direct email, structured. Informal Communication in communication networks how information flows in real time, ex; sharing information over coffee with friends. Usually occurs overtime as information saturation occurs. Communication Network Findings Network and location in the network influences many structural processes and outcomes (structure influences communication and vice versa). Influence the emergence of leadership, the structure of groups, the morale of group members, and efficiency of problem solving. Even when informal methods are used, networks will be shaped over time. Communication Network - Centralised These groups often use a hub to collect (ie a high degree of centrality) synthesise, and send back info. Most efficiency unless info. overload. Individuals who occupy more centralized positions are more influential and satisfied then those located at the periphery. Hub centralised place or person where information goes and is disseminated. Ie, CEO, person with status. Hierarchical Networks More info. Flows downward (group processes) and unrealistically positive info. Flows upward - ie chain network. Info. sent down is generally task oriented (what to do/how its done), info sent up focuses on performance but also satisfaction/grievances. Types of Communication Networks Chain, wheel, circle, comcon. Centralized vs uncentralized. Example of Communication Network in Small Groups Chain When communication flows from one person to the next. Usually closed, centralized. Wheel is a chain that has a hub. Always centralized because of hub. Circle Everyone is communicating with each other. Pinwheel is a closed chain (from one person to the next) and in one direction. Comcom all individuals all linked in communication, ex; google. Decentralized Optimal Network for certain Tasks For simple tasks = centralized. For complex tasks = decentralized. For speed = centralized. For satisfaction of group members = decentralized. For leadership = centralized. Social Network Analysis Set of procedures studying the relational structure of groups mathematically and graphically. Use of graphics to represent structure. Looks at individuals (i.e. degree of centrality, betweenness, and closeness) and groups as networks (density, cliques, holes). Understanding of the group’s structure (formally and informally) influences a group’s structure, procedures, status, and communication. degree centrality The number of ties between group members; the group’s degree centrality is the average of the direct connections among group members. outdegree The number of ties initiated by the individual in a directed network. indegree The number of ties received by the individual in a directed network. betweenness The degree to which a group member’s position in a network is located along a path between other pairs of individuals in the network. closeness The inverse of the distance, in terms of ties, of an individual from all others in the network. density The degree of connectedness of the group’s members, as indexed by the number of actual ties linking members divided by the number of possibilities. cliques In social network analysis, subgroups of interre- lated members within the larger group context. holes In social network analysis, gaps or schisms within the network. Generational Differences Better understand its impact in the workplace. Increase personal competency in communication and management. Promote teamwork, creativity, productivity. All gens are different - but each gen that precedes the next gen believes that they are not self-centred/not loyal and unmotivated. Changing demographics - how does it change structure and communication? Changing demographics - how does it change structure and communication? 4 Generations at Work 1. Traditionalists 1922-1943. 2. Baby Boomers 1943-1960. Gen X 1960-1980. Gen Y/Millennials 1980-2000. Gen z/Digital Natives 1997-2012. Traditionalists Values Hard work, dedication & sacrifice, respect for rules, honour and loyalty, do not seek feedback, authoritative communication style. Boomers Values Team orientation, personal gratification, personal growth/self-help, generally give feedback but don't seek it. Xers Values Diversity, techno literacy, self-reliance and increased confidence, pragmatism and belief in the truth (not scared to voice it), enjoy feedback but dont always seek it. Millennial Values Optimistic, coddled/fawned iver (did not want to be raised the same as Xers), fast pased lives, feel civic duty, ultra-confident, achievement oriented, respect for diversity/inclusion, seek feedback. Generational Interaction Each gen. has diff. Values and ideas. Traditionalists and boomers (in a leadership role) may have a tendency to not question or challenge authority or status quo. This may cause confusion and resentment among gen Z, Xers and Millennials who have been taught to speak up. Generational Meaning of Feedback - Boomers Often giving feedback (preferably face to face) to others but seldom receive, especially positive feedback - but may not give it at the rate it is needed and the way it is needed. Generational Meaning of Feedback - Xers Need positive feedback to let them know they are on the right track. Generational Meaning of Feedback - Millennials Used to feedback and may mistake silence for disapproval. They need to know what they're doing right and what they're doing wrong. Millennials in The Work Place Created a new breed of workers; challenging everything from norms, authority, hierarchy. Want to have fun at work, don't adhere to traditions. Expect to move up in position ASAP - big challenge for managers. Older generations claim they have a sense of entitlement. 360-Degree Assessment Looks at communication and structure More than 75% of fortune 500 companies use this procedure. Individual will take an assessment about some structural construct (ex; EI, leadership or communication skills, etc) and then choose other individuals (peers, bosses, subordinates) to rate them on the same construct. All feedback is confidential. Issues in 360-degree Assessment Can be complex to administer and may face issues related to bias, misuse, and interpretation of feedback. Advantages of 360-Degree Assessment Give feedback to higher ups. Objective measure of someone’s performance. Provides perspective from many different angles. Increases awareness of related behaviours. Improves communication between self and raters. Clarifies differences of opinions. Identifies gaps in performance and recognizes areas in which the rate can improve. Objective is to create new structure, processes, etc.