Unit 5 The Psychology of Groups PDF

Unit 5: The psychology of groups 2. Attributes of human groups 1. Introduction 1. How is a social group defined?  A social group is defined as a set of individua...

Unit 5: The psychology of groups 2. Attributes of human groups 1. Introduction 1. How is a social group defined?  A social group is defined as a set of individuals 1. Why do people often work in groups? with a shared purpose and who typically share a  People work in groups because groups can be positive social identity. beneficial for studying, working, and achieving 2. What is the minimum number of people required to common goals. form a social group? 2. What is the nature of a group?  A social group is formed with two or more  A group is a collection of units that share people who are perceived to be bonded together common characteristics or features. in a coherent unit.  For example, a group of red balls is the "red 3. Provide examples of social groups. group," and a group of blue balls is the "blue  Examples of social groups include athletic group." teams, students in the same class, and protesters 3. Are groups fixed collections of things? Explain. in social movements like the "fees must fall  No, groups are not fixed collections of things. student movement."  They can consist of smaller subgroups within a 4. When do human groups exist? larger group and can also be part of a larger  Human groups exist when people either identify group. themselves as a group or are recognized by 4. What two aspects define a group's nature? others as a group.  Group structure and group process. 5. The diagram below categorises these attributes in 5. What is group structure? terms of group structure and group process (check  Group structure refers to the composition and original pdf). other unique characteristics that define a group. 6. What is group process? 5.2. Attribut  Group process refers to the evolution of a group es and the changes that occur over time. 5.2.1 7. Why is group work often not as good as expected?. 5.2.2. Process  Group work is often not as good as expected 5.2.1.4. 5.2.2. because group members may not always be 5.2.1.1 5.2.1.2. 5.2.1. 3. socio- 5.2.2.1. 5.2.2.2. 5.2.2.3. 4.. Group group group group group motivated to meet group goals, effectively share information, or efficiently coordinate their efforts. 2.1 The structure of human groups The structure of human groups comprises of certain attributes. These are discussed below: 1. Membership 6. How do groups help answer the question, "Who am I?"  Groups help answer the question, "Who am I?" by defining people not only by their personal traits but also by their memberships in groups, including friendships, social roles, family connections, and group memberships. 7. What is social identity theory, and how does it relate to self-categorization?  Social identity theory suggests that individuals categorize not only others but also themselves  based on demographic qualities like gender or 13. What is group cohesion? age.  Group cohesion refers to the strength of the  If individuals strongly identify with these relationship among group members. categories, they ascribe the characteristics of the  It represents the integrity, solidarity, social typical group member to themselves and may integration, or unity within a group. stereotype themselves accordingly. 14. How does group cohesion affect group performance 8. How do groups influence self-esteem, according to and member satisfaction? Crocker & Luhtanen (1990)?  Cohesive groups tend to perform better, and  Groups can influence self-esteem by providing members of cohesive groups usually enjoy their means for maintaining and enhancing self- groups more. worth.  Group cohesion is a force that keeps members in  The assessment of the quality of groups the group and promotes group unity. individuals belong to can impact their collective 15. What factors can increase group cohesiveness? self-esteem.  Increasing the effort required to gain entry:  For instance, if personal self-esteem is shaken When the entry requirements for a group are by a setback, individuals can focus on their more challenging or demanding, such as in group's success and prestige to boost their self- fraternities or sororities, members are often more worth. committed. The higher effort to join strengthens 9. How can comparing one's group to other groups the bond among group members. impact self-esteem?  Existence of external threats:When group  Comparing one's group to other groups can members perceive common external threats or impact self-esteem positively. challenges, they tend to become more committed  By discovering that their group is superior or by to their own group. The shared perception of denigrating other groups, individuals can elevate external threats unites them in pursuit of both their personal and collective self-esteem. common goals and self-preservation.  Size (small): Smaller groups tend to foster 2. Group norms higher cohesiveness. In smaller groups, 10. What are group norms? members are physically closer, which can lead to stronger social bonds and a greater  Group norms are the behavioral expectations from each member of a group. commitment to the group's success.  They include customs, traditions, standards,  Performance: Group performance has a rules, and the general values of the group. significant impact on cohesiveness. When a 11. What are injunctive norms in the context of group group performs well and achieves its goals, members tend to be more committed to the norms? group. This positive feedback loop can lead to  Injunctive norms are a type of group norm that improved group performance, as committed specifies how group members are expected to members work more effectively together. behave.  They include prescriptive norms (what members 4. Socio-metrics structure should do) and proscriptive norms (what members should not do). 16. What are socio-metric structures in the context of 12. How does the clarity and consensus of group norms groups? affect group members' commitment?  Socio-metric structures refer to patterns of liking  The more clearly defined and widely agreed and disliking within a group or among members upon the group norms are, the more likely group of the same group. members are to display higher levels of 17. What influences the patterns of liking and disliking commitment to the group. within a group?  The patterns of liking and disliking within a 3. Group cohesion group are influenced by the group's degree of  task orientation and the frequency of time group  Seek outside opinion: the leader should invite members spend together on tasks. outside opinion from someone who is not a 18. How does the frequency of interactions among member of the group. group members affect socio-metric structures?  Create sub-groups: the leader should divide the  When group members spend more time together group into sub-groups that first meet separately on tasks, they tend to form closer relationships and then meet together to discuss their different with one another. recommendations.  This can result in patterns of mutual liking and  Seek anonymous opinions: Allow members to disliking within the group. provide opinions anonymously to ensure that all the opinions are presented. 2.2 The process of human groups 2. Group polarization 1. Group think 23. What is group polarization? 19. What is groupthink?  Group polarization is the tendency of group  Groupthink occurs when a group prioritizes members to shift toward more extreme positions maintaining cohesion and solidarity over than those they initially held after group considering the facts or differing opinions when discussion. making decisions. 24. Can you provide an example illustrating group 20. What can be the consequence of groupthink in polarization? decision-making?  For example, in a group assigned to make a  Groupthink can lead to a unanimous but presentation, members may initially have potentially flawed decision-making process. reservations about showing a provocative video.  It can stifle the introduction of new ideas and  However, after group discussion, they may lead to group polarization, where the group become more inclined to show the video, becomes more extreme to satisfy the group leading to a more extreme decision. leader. 25. Does group discussion typically moderate people's 21. Can you describe a scenario that illustrates judgments, according to research? groupthink?  No, according to research, group discussion does  In a scenario where a group discusses a new not typically moderate people's judgments. nuclear weapon policy, groupthink might occur  Instead, it often leads to group polarization, if members feel pressure to conform to the where judgments made after group discussion leader's views, even if they privately disagree. tend to be more extreme in the same direction as  This can result in a unanimous but potentially the average of individual judgments made prior detrimental decision. to the discussion. 3. Group conflict 26. What can be a source of conflict in a group?  Conflict within a group can arise from members' differing expectations of the group, the group's goals, and the methods used to achieve those goals. 27. How can group conflict impact a group's cohesion and unity?  Group conflict may lead to divisions or splinters 22. How can we avoid groupthink? within the group, potentially causing  Remain impartial: the leader should not take a disruptions. position but should remain impartial.   The ability to manage and resolve conflicts b) Charismatic leadership constructively often depends on the group's goals and its level of cohesiveness. 34. What is charismatic leadership? 28. In the context of political parties, how might their  Charismatic leadership is a leadership style ability to resolve conflicts relate to group goals and characterized by leaders who are enthusiastic, cohesiveness? committed, and self-confident.  In the case of political parties, their ability to  They emphasize the importance of group goals, resolve conflicts may be linked to their level of make personal sacrifices for the group, express cohesiveness and whether or not their members views that validate existing norms, and present a share common goals. vision for what the group could or should  If members have conflicting goals or a lack of become. cohesion, it may be more challenging to manage  Charismatic leaders use their referent power to and resolve internal conflicts. motivate, uplift, and inspire others. 35. What is the relationship between a leader's charisma 4. Patterns of leadership and followership and effective leadership performance?  Research has found a positive relationship 29. What is the role of a leader in a group, particularly between a leader's charisma and effective regarding groupthink and group polarization? leadership performance.  A leader plays a crucial role in controlling  Charismatic leaders tend to be effective in groupthink and group polarization within a motivating and inspiring their followers. group.  Leadership influences the group's decision- c) Transformational leadership making processes and discussion dynamics. 30. What are the different leadership styles? 36. What is transformational leadership, and how is it  Authoritarian leadership described by Bennis and Nanus (1985)?  Charismatic leadership  Transformational leadership, as described by Bennis and Nanus, involves using knowledge  Transformational leadership and engendering trust to build commitment.  Super leadership  This is achieved through effective  Leading through personal traits communication of a shared vision, support for a) Authoritarian leadership change, and the development of a supportive culture. 31. What is authoritarian leadership? 37. What are the seven dimensions of transformational  Authoritarian leadership is a style in which a leadership described by Leithwood and Duke leader exerts maximum control over a group by (1999)? making unilateral decisions, assigning specific  1. Creating a shared vision tasks, and generally controlling group processes.  2. Setting goals 32. When might authoritarian leadership be beneficial  3. Providing intellectual stimulation for a group?  4. Supplying individual support  Authoritarian leadership can be beneficial in  5. Modelling effective practice situations where a group requires clear direction  6. Meeting high expectations or faces significant time pressures.  7. Developing a positive culture and creating  It can help maintain efficiency and organization structures that support active involvement in to achieve group goals. decision-making. 33. What is a potential drawback of authoritarian 38. How do transformational leaders engage in the leadership? process of achieving a shared vision and goals?  A drawback of authoritarian leadership is that  Transformational leaders engage in the process group members may be less committed to the by valuing individual differences and supporting outcomes of the group process when they are not followers. involved in the decision-making process.   They model the practices they want others to groups form?” (van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013, emulate, instill feelings of confidence, p. 52). The processes that will be covered in this section admiration, and commitment in followers, and are, social categorisation, social stereotyping and social keep true to the vision and goals. identity. d) Super-leadership 39. What is super-leadership, and what is its main objective?  Super-leadership is a leadership style where leaders guide individuals to lead themselves.  The main objective of super-leaders is to 3.1 Social categorization empower group members to develop the 1. What is social categorization? behavioral and cognitive skills necessary for  Social categorization is the cognitive process by self-leadership. which individuals place others into social groups 40. How do super-leaders operate within a group? based on characteristics like gender, age, race, or  Super-leaders act as teachers and mentors, affiliations. imparting the skills and knowledge needed for 2. Who introduced the concept of social categorization, self-leadership. and when was it first discussed?  They strive to empower group members to  The concept of social categorization was manage themselves and become self-leaders. introduced by Gordon Allport and was discussed in his work published in 1954 and later in 1979. e) Leadership through personal traits 3. How does social categorization influence how 41. What is the personal trait approach to leadership, individuals respond to others? and what does it focus on?  Once individuals categorize someone based on  The personal trait approach to leadership focuses their social group, they tend to respond to that on the personal attributes or traits of leaders, person more as a member of a social group such as personality characteristics, rather than as an individual. competencies, and values. 4. How can the groups used in social categorization 42. How does this approach view leadership, and from change over time or in different situations? whose perspective is it primarily considered?  The groups used in social categorization can  This approach views leadership solely from the change over time and in various situations. perspective of the individual leader.  Individuals are more likely to emphasize certain 43. What are some of the leadership traits associated group memberships when they become more with personal trait leaders? salient or important in specific contexts.  Personal trait leaders are believed to possess 3.2 Social stereotyping enduring characteristics like drive and energy, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, 5. What are stereotypes in the context of social intelligence, and expertise. psychology? 44. How do group members tend to react to personal  Stereotypes are oversimplified generalizations trait leaders? about groups of people based on characteristics  Group members tend to feel safe with personal like race, ethnicity, age, gender, or sexual trait leaders and are often willing to subject orientation. They often do not take individual themselves to their control, as these leaders are differences into account. driven by ambition and a need for power. 6. What is the idiom that illustrates the concept of a stereotype? 3. Differentiation of groups  A fitting idiomatic expression for a stereotype is In this section, we consider how groups come to exist. In "painting people with the same brush," which other words, “what are the processes at work when means categorizing people within a social group  as if they are all the same, ignoring individual themselves as group members and strongly differences. identify with the group. 7. Where do stereotypes typically come from, and how  This can lead to individuals stereotyping are they often perpetuated? themselves based on the group's characteristics.  Stereotypes are often recycled from groups that have assimilated into society and reused to 4. Interaction in groups describe newly subordinate groups. In this section, we consider intergroup interactions. In  They may be used to strengthen discrimination other words, not what happens within the group but against one social group over another. rather what happens between different groups.  Old stereotypes may persist and be perpetuated, even when they are unfounded.  Intergroup behaviour occurs when members of 8. Can you provide examples of stereotypes mentioned one group (us-group/ in-group) acts towards in your notes? another group (them-group/ out-group) in terms  Examples of stereotypes mentioned in the notes of the group members rather than the individual include "Black people are criminals" and "White capacity. people are racist."  Flow chart is on pg 11 in original notes.  These stereotypes are often based on limited incidents and do not reflect the reality that 4.1 Levels of explanation of intergroup relations individuals within these groups can vary widely 1. What are the levels of explanation of intergroup in their characteristics and behaviors. relations, as outlined by Swart (2004)? 3.3 Social identity  Swart (2004) outlined the levels of explanation of intergroup relations. 9. What is social identity, and how does it influence  These levels help to understand and constitute our self-concept? intergroup relations, and they are discussed  Social identity is the concept that individuals not below. only define themselves as individuals but also as members of particular groups, ascribing their 1. Individual-level explanations identity to those groups. 2. How do individual-level explanations contribute to  It influences our self-concept by incorporating the understanding of intergroup relations? qualities that come from group memberships,  Individual-level explanations suggest that such as friendships, social roles, and family intergroup relations are influenced to some connections, into our sense of self. degree by individual dynamics and personality 10. How can demographic qualities like sex or age factors within the groups. influence individuals when they categorize themselves based on these qualities?  While groups are collective units, they are  Demographic qualities like sex or age can composed of individuals, and these individual- level factors play a role in intergroup dynamics. influence individuals when they categorize themselves based on these qualities. 2. Interpersonal-level explanations  If individuals strongly identify with these categories, they may ascribe the characteristics 3. What is the basis of interpersonal-level explanations of the typical member of these groups to for intergroup relations? themselves, leading to self-stereotyping.  Interpersonal-level explanations propose that 11. What is the central assumption of social identity interpersonal interactions are driven by theory, and how does it relate to individuals economic principles, where individuals interact categorizing themselves as group members? with others based on a reward versus costs  Social identity theory assumes that groups calculation. influence their members' self-concepts and self- esteem, particularly when individuals categorize   People engage with others when they anticipate  These ideological differences may lead to receiving psychological rewards that outweigh conflicts, reduced productivity, and difficulties the psychological costs involved. in achieving intergroup goals. 4. Have you ever worked on a task with individuals from an out-group, and if so, what motivated you to 4.2 A practical framework for intergroup co-operation collaborate with them, and what benefits did you 9. Who proposed a practical framework for intergroup expect to gain? cooperation, and why is it relevant in the context of  This question prompts a personal reflection on intergroup relations? whether the individual has experience working  Jordaan (1998) proposed a practical framework with members of an out-group, their motivation for intergroup cooperation, which is relevant in for collaboration, and the perceived benefits they the context of intergroup relations to address and expected from the collaboration. improve intergroup cooperation in situations where conflicts or challenges may arise. 3. Positional-level explanations 1. Create a social norm 5. What does the positional-level explanation of intergroup relations focus on? 10. Why is the creation of social norms important in the  The positional-level explanation of intergroup context of intergroup relations? relations focuses on the idea that conflicts  The creation of social norms is important in between groups can arise from incompatible intergroup relations because it helps establish group goals and competition over scarce common behavioral guidelines that guide the resources. actions of groups and their members. 6. How can the concept of positional-level explanations  Social norms affirm the commonality among help us understand situations like political party different groups, enabling them to identify with coalitions in South Africa where conflicts and each other and work toward shared goals. accusations of "power-hunger" arise? 11. How do creating social norms contribute to the  The positional-level explanation can help us success of intergroup relations, according to Jordaan understand such conflicts by attributing them to (1998)? incompatible group goals and competition for  Jordaan (1998) suggests that creating social power or resources, which can lead to challenges norms in intergroup relations involves making and conflicts between groups. group members aware of the broader context 4. Ideological-level explanations they share with other groups.  This broader understanding allows group 7. What do ideological-level explanations of intergroup members to see other groups as occupying the relations focus on? same space for a common goal, promoting  Ideological-level explanations of intergroup successful intergroup relations. relations center on differences in beliefs, values, and ideologies that can lead to conflicts and 2. Maintain equity of status challenges when groups with opposing 12. What is one of the strategies required for ensuring viewpoints must collaborate or work together. successful intergroup relations, especially when 8. Can you provide an example of how ideological assigning groups to tasks? differences might impact intergroup relations, as  One of the strategies for ensuring successful mentioned in your notes? intergroup relations is to maintain the equity of  An example could be when two groups, such as status between groups, where groups are psychology students with conflicting beliefs considered equal and valued equally, regardless about the causes of human behavior, are of their differences. assigned to a group assignment. 13. Why is it important to prioritize equal status among groups in intergroup relations?   Prioritizing equal status among groups is crucial  This fosters a sense of unity and shared purpose because it helps prevent the perception of one among groups. group as superior or inferior, fostering a sense of equality and respect among different groups, 5. Develop a multicultural ethos which is essential for successful intergroup 18. What is meant by a multicultural identity in the relations. context of intergroup relations? 3. Maintain interpersonal contact  A multicultural identity refers to the social spaces consisting of various groups. 14. According to Jordaan (1998) and Van Deventer and  It recognizes that various groups coexist within Mojapelo-Batka (2013), what is the impact of a broader context, each with its own identity, maintaining interpersonal contact between groups in functions, and roles. intergroup relations? 19. Why is it important for group members to be aware  Maintaining interpersonal contact between of their membership in a broader context? groups reduces perceptions of ingroup  Being aware of their membership in a broader differences and outgroup similarities. context is important because it fosters a sense of  It helps group members understand each other multicultural ethos, where group members better and perceive each other in terms of acknowledge their place within a larger commonalities rather than differences. community, understand the diversity of groups, 15. How can maintaining interpersonal contact lead to and work towards intergroup cooperation. the demolition of stereotypes about outgroup members, as mentioned in your notes? 6. Develop a critical consciousness of oppressive  Maintaining interpersonal contact can lead to the patterns demolition of stereotypes about outgroup 20. Why is it important for group members to be aware members by allowing individuals to see the of possible or existing patterns of oppression in diversity within the outgroup. intergroup relations?  For example, getting to know taxi drivers  It is important for group members to be aware of personally may reveal that they vary in oppressive patterns to identify and critically friendliness, challenging the stereotype that all assess any oppressive tactics used by one group taxi drivers are rude. over another. 4. Maintain cooperative activities  This awareness and critical consciousness are essential for fostering effective and positive 16. Why are group activities or tasks important for intergroup relations. intergroup relations)?  Group activities and tasks are important for 5. Group work and performance intergroup relations because they bring group 5.1 Working together in groups members closer together and help them develop common interests. 1. What determines the ability of a group to perform  Working together on common goals makes well? group members more aware of the wider context  The ability of a group to perform well is in which they exist. determined by the characteristics of the group 17. How do cooperative activities strengthen intergroup members (e.g., knowledge and skills) and the relations and provide members with more insight group process—the events that occur while the about their context? group is working on the task.  Cooperative activities strengthen the bonds 2. What is a group process gain, and when does it between group members and allow them to occur? develop more insight about their context by working together to achieve common goals.   A group process gain occurs when the group's Keep group member Group members will work contributions identifiable harder if they feel that their performance outcome is better than expected, contributions to the group given the individuals who form the group. are known and potentially  It means the group achieved higher results seen positively by the other group members than they collectively. will if their contributions are 3. What is a group process loss, and when does it summed into the group total and thus unknown occur? (Szymanski & Harkins, 1987).  A group process loss occurs when the group's Maintain distributive justice Group members who feel performance outcome is worse than expected, (equity) that their rewards are proportional to their efforts given the individuals who form the group. in the group will be happier  It means the group achieved lower results and work harder than will members who feel that they collectively. are under-rewarded (Geurts, Buunk, 5.2 Using groups effectively & Schaufeli, 1994). Keep groups small Larger groups are more likely 4. What are some strengths of working in groups? to suffer from coordination problems and social loafing.  Working in groups can lead to better decision- The most effective working making and the ability to achieve outcomes that groups are of relatively small size—about an individual cannot accomplish alone. four or five members.  Group decisions are often perceived as fair, Create positive group Group performance is making them easier to implement. norms increased when the group members care about the 5. What are some limitations of working in groups? ability of the group to do a  Groups can experience process losses, leading to good job. On the other hand, some groups develop norms reduced effectiveness. that prohibit members from  Additionally, group members may overvalue the working to their full potential and productivity of their groups, which is known as thus encourage loafing the illusion of group productivity. Improve information Leaders must work to be 6. What is the illusion of group productivity, and why sharing sure that each member of the group is encouraged to does it occur? present the information that  The illusion of group productivity is when group he or she has in group members tend to overestimate the productivity discussions. One approach to increasing full discussion of of their groups, even if the group's actual the issues is to have the performance is not that good. group break up into smaller sub-groups for  It occurs because the overall productivity of the discussion. group is more accessible and appears better than Allow plenty of time Groups take longer to reach the contributions of individual members. consensus and allowing plenty of time will help keep  Positive social identity from group membership the group from coming to also contributes to this perception. premature consensus and making an unwise choice. 7. The table 1 below presents some of the techniques Time to consider the issues that are known to help groups achieve their goals. fully also allows the group to gain new knowledge by Technique Example seeking information Provide rewards for Rewarding team members and analysis from outside performance with bonuses will increase experts. their effort toward the group Set specific and attainable Groups that set specific, goal. People will also work goals difficult, yet attainable goals harder in groups when they (e.g., “improve sales by 10% feel that they are over the next 6 months”) are contributing to the group more effective than groups goal than when they feel that that are given goals that are their contributions are not not very clear (e.g., “let’s important. sell as much as we can!”; Locke & Latham, 2006).