Developmental Psychology: Contexts for Development PDF

PSYU2235 / PSYX2235 Developmental Psychology CONTEXTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: PARENTS, SIBLINGS, FAMILIES WEEK 8 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR JOSEPHINE PAPARO [email protected] THIS WEEK… PART 1 o Theories About Contexts for Development PART 2 o Contexts for Development...

PSYU2235 / PSYX2235 Developmental Psychology CONTEXTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: PARENTS, SIBLINGS, FAMILIES WEEK 8 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR JOSEPHINE PAPARO [email protected] THIS WEEK… PART 1 o Theories About Contexts for Development PART 2 o Contexts for Development Source: https://giphy.com/ explore/we-are-family 2 Aims & Learning Outcomes Students should be able to: Describe how Bronfenbrenner and Belsky’s ecological models seek to explain child development and parenting Understand how “Social Address” in the context of poverty and disadvantage can impact opportunities for and the development of children Discuss predictors of positive parenting and the ways in which parents influence children Explain what children need o Baumrind’s model of parenting styles o Cross-cultural perspectives Discuss differing family structures and implications for child adjustment 3 PART 1: Theories About Contexts for Development 4 Why Study Contexts? Genes AND Environment Currently can’t change genes Environment can be modified or improved Importance of culture Family structures are evolving New contexts can be developed/put in place o E.g., Childcare, parenting interventions, screening programs 5 BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY 6 RECAP… Bronfenbrenner ’s Integrative Ecological Systems Theory Source: https://www.simplypsyc hology.org/Bronfenbren ner.html 7  BELSKY’S DETERMINANTS OF PARENTING MODEL 8 Determinants of Parenting (Belsky, 1984) PARENT, CHILD, CONTEXT 9 Determinants of Parenting (Belsky, 1984) PARENT, CHILD, CONTEXT 1) Parent Characteristics Attachment history – psychological resources (e.g., attachment style, resilience) and personality Mental health status (including substance use issues) Employment/Education (linked to SES) 2) Child Characteristics Temperament, disability, health, birth order, gender 3) Contextual Factors Family Structure  Stability? o Single/Two Parent/Co-Parenting/Blended Parenting/Siblings o Extended/Adoptive/Foster o Family Conflict/Marital Discord/Separation/Divorce/DV Social Network and Resources  Safe/Supported Environment? o Rural/Urban o Neighbourhood o Schools/Community Resources/Supports SES  Opportunity? 10 ***Social Address: Advantaged vs Disadvantaged Example of Different Contexts in Australia – Two speed childhoods, advantaged and disadvantaged (Hayes, 2011; AIHW “A picture of Australia’s children”, 2009; Stanley et al., 2005) Entrenched Poverty & Social Exclusion Limits Parenting Capacity and Opportunities for children – how do we identify and support families at risk? More than 1.2m Australian children are living below the “Poverty Line” o Think: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Unacceptable rates of child abuse o 61,000 substantiated reports in 2016; 46,448 children in out of home care  Universal vs. targeted interventions?  Early intervention programs (parenting skills, practical support)  High quality childcare and preschool can offset risks First Nations people – how do we close the gap? o > Likelihood of domestic violence, sexual assault, out of home care o Inter-generational disadvantage, abuse, neglect o 44% families financial stress, 14% poverty, MH problems 11  PREDICTORS OF POSITIVE PARENTING 12 Positive Adaptation to Parenting  Parenting Quality Longitudinal studies  Transition to Parenthood (E.g., Heinicke, 2002; The Minnesota Longitudinal Study – Sroufe et al; Intergenerational Attachment Studies) Heinickle, 2002  Within parent effects  Personality Characteristics 1) Adaptation-competence/Ego Strength o Efficient, non-anxious, persistent, flexible approach to problem solving o ?Psychological maturity 2) Capacity for sustained relationships o Empathy, positive mutuality, perspective taking, quality of partner relationship, support networks 3) Self-development (maturity) *See parallels with o Autonomy and confidence vs. insecurity attachment theory 13 Positive Adaptation to Parenting  Parenting Quality Longitudinal studies  Transition to Parenthood (E.g., Heinicke, 2002; The Minnesota Longitudinal Study – Sroufe et al; Intergenerational Attachment Studies) Minnesota Longitudinal Study (Sroufe et al. 2009; Egeland et al. 1980 )  Individual’s Level of personality integration – Maturity? o Ability of parent to recognise/reflect on own psychological needs and processes o Ability to perceive psychological needs and processes in others o Ability to integrate the two competing agendas 14 …“Reflective functioning” Positive Adaptation to Parenting  Parenting Quality Longitudinal studies  Transition to Parenthood (E.g., Heinicke, 2002; The Minnesota Longitudinal Study – Sroufe et al; Intergenerational Attachment Studies) Intergenerational Attachment studies (e.g., meta- analyses – Van Ijzendoorn, 1995; Verhaage et al., 2016)  Working model of attachment predicts security of attachment of offspring  Moderate effect size o Characteristics of an adult secure/autonomous state of mind regarding attachment  Flexibility (non defensive thinking; open)  Capacity for perspective taking  Autonomy …“Earned Security” 15  PARENTAL INFLUENCES ON CHILD OUTCOMES 16 How Parents Influence Children Parent-child relationships and child-rearing styles (quality of interaction) Parents as instructors, educators or consultants Parents as managers or regulators of opportunities and environments for children o “Parental Monitoring” (Dishion & McMahon, 1998) – Regulation of children’s choice of social settings, activities and friends. Low monitoring  delinquent and anti-social behaviour, lower academic performance o Providing social opportunities (e.g., social initiator & arranger, childcare, child-oriented clubs and organisations)*  Australian data  children from low SES backgrounds less likely to be involved in organised sport  Middle-class parents more likely to provide these opportunities and be involved in them *SES and cultural context 17  Economic advantages differences *Can there be too many “opportunities”  BAUMRIND’S PARENTING STYLES 18 Parenting/Childrearing Styles (Baumrind, 1967; 1991; 2013) Based on naturalistic observations of family interactions and interviews with parents Two intersecting dimensions  Balance 1) Parental Warmth/Responsiveness 2) Parental Demandingness/Control *Parallels with attachment theory 19 Parenting/Childrearing Styles (Baumrind, 1967; 1991; 2013) Unpacking Dimension 1: Parental Warmth/ Responsiveness  Affectionate supportive responsiveness (follow child’s lead/cues whenever possible) Warm and involved caretaking Expressed concern for child’s well-being Clarity and inclusiveness of communication o Extent to which parent solicits and listens to child’s opinions/feelings o Extent to which parent provides rationales or reasons for decisions (e.g., punitive/restrictive measures) Expressed pleasure in child’s accomplishments  “delight in me” *See overlap with sensitivity 20 Parenting/Childrearing Styles (Baumrind, 1967; 1991; 2013) Unpacking Dimension 2: Parental Demandingness/ Control  Limit setting (whenever necessary take control) Discipline and regulation of behaviour in accord with parental standards o Appropriate to risk/developmental needs OR o Overly harsh/punitive OR o Over-protective/over-involved Maturity Demands – age appropriate? o Providing appropriate scaffolded opportunities for self- regulation o Pressure/demand to perform, *NB: Gray self-regulate and Steinberg (1999)  behavioural vs psychological control 21  What Children Need… Care and Control  Getting the balance right 22 Baumrind’s Parenting Typologies Warmth/Responsiveness HIGH LOW HIGH Authoritative Authoritarian Demandingnes s/ Control LOW Permissive Uninvolved/ Neglectful 23 Expansion of Baumrind’s Parenting Typologies (Maccoby & Martin, 1983) STYLE DEMANDING- WARMTH/ CLARITY OF MATURITY NESS/ RESPONSIVE- COMMUN- DEMANDS CONTROL NESS ICATION Authoritativ High High High High e Authoritaria High Low Low High n Permissive Low High Mixed Low Uninvolved Low Low Low Low AUTHORITATIVE AND AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS DIFFER IN THE WAY CONTROL IS IMPLEMENTED 24 Expansion of Baumrind’s Parenting Typologies (Maccoby & Martin, 1983) STYLE DEMANDING- WARMTH/ CLARITY OF MATURITY NESS/ RESPONSIVE- COMMUN- DEMANDS CONTROL NESS ICATION Authoritativ High High High High e Authoritaria High Low Low High n Permissive Low High Mixed Low Uninvolved Low Low Low Low AUTHORITATIVE AND AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS DIFFER IN THE WAY CONTROL IS IMPLEMENTED 25 Expansion of Baumrind’s Parenting Typologies (Maccoby & Martin, 1983) STYLE DEMANDING- WARMTH/ CLARITY OF MATURITY NESS/ RESPONSIVE- COMMUN- DEMANDS CONTROL NESS ICATION Authoritativ High High High High e Authoritaria High Low Low High n Permissive Low High Mixed Low Uninvolved Low Low Low Low AUTHORITATIVE AND AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS DIFFER IN THE WAY CONTROL IS IMPLEMENTED 26 1) Authoritative Pattern: “Reciprocal Parenting” Expectation of mature behaviour and clear standard setting Firm enforcement of rules and standards o Uses commands and sanctions when necessary …”whenever necessary, take charge” Encouragement of independence and individuality (e.g., autonomy support, exploration) …“whenever possible, follow child’s need” Open communication o Parents express/explain their view and listen to child’s views Rights/perspectives of both parents and children 27 1) Authoritative Pattern: “Reciprocal Parenting” Child Outcomes Positive self-esteem High adaptability High competence (especially for boys) Internalised locus of control Self-reliant, self-regulated (Amato & Fowler, 2002) Popularity with peers Low levels of anti-social behaviour Altruistic *Heaven & Ciarrochi, 28 2008 2) Authoritarian Pattern: “Power Assertion Parenting” Parent’s demands on their children not balanced by recognition of child’s perspective o Children expected to inhibit begging, demanding – “don’t ask…” Parent’s demands are edicts o Rules not discussed in advance or arrived at through negotiation o Maintenance of parental authority strongly valued o Affection may be withdrawn or contingent on compliance o Low threshold for disobedience o May include severe punishment of children o Punishment often physical *Applications to social/political systems, schools 29 2) Authoritarian Pattern: “Power Assertion Parenting” Child Outcomes Children have little control over environment o Fearful of asserting themselves o Unhappy, conflicted, neurotic behaviour common in children o Low self-esteem (Babour et al., 2016) o External locus of control o Low scores on measures of conscience – i.e., don’t internalise standards, poor self-regulation o More negative long term outcomes for boys (who may become hostile) than girls …Cultural differences 30 3) Permissive Pattern: “Indulgent Parenting” Tolerant of child’s impulses (including sexual & aggressive) Use little punishment, avoid asserting authority or imposing restrictions Make few demands for mature behaviour e.g., manners, household tasks, homework Allow children to regulate own behaviour (e.g., bedtime) and make own decisions, few rules governing the child’s schedule 31 3) Permissive Pattern: “Indulgent Parenting” Child Outcomes (> Likelihood only) Uncontrolled, impulsive Demanding, dependent (Baumrind, 1997l; Querido et al., 2002) In adolescence, disengaged from school, involved in drug and alcohol use, school misconduct, early sexual activity Strongly oriented towards peers BUT May feel close to parents May have high social competence/self- confidence 32 4) Uninvolved Pattern: “Neglectful Parenting” Low level of involvement with child Minimise time and effort in interaction with child Do whatever is necessary to minimise costs in time and effort of interacting with their children Failure to monitor child’s Source: https://www.thedailyworld.com/life/new- muppet-is-a-foster-kid-with-for-now-parents/ activity *Both ends of SES scale; mood disorders, substance 33 abuse 4) Uninvolved Pattern: “Neglectful Parenting” Child Outcomes Compromised child competence, self-perceptions, behaviour, psychological distress o Disruptions in attachment – Disorganised “D” Pattern (? Role reversal) o Poor self control – impulsivity, aggression, non- compliance o Low self-esteem o Poor peer relationships o In adolescence, more severe delinquency (Higgins, 2015)34 “Circle of Security” Version https:// www.circleofsecurityinte rnational.com/ 35 HANDS… Balance between being a “secure base” & “safe haven” = “Circle of Security” Version HANDS Mean = authoritarian Weak = permissive Gone = uninvolved *Children need adults to be in control 36 “Getting the balance right for control” "37 Critiques of Typological Approach to Parenting What is the direction of the effect? Child temperament/vulnerability may influence parenting style… to a degree Are parents consistent? Different parenting in different circumstances/moods/eras Different parenting in different domains – protection vs companionship, etc. Birth order effects Family events/disruptions How universal is the typology? (Sorkhabi, 2005) Different SES and cultural groups? Are the advantages associated with authoritative parenting from western middle-class studies also apparent in other cultures? Typologies should be applied to parenting behaviours, not 38 parents WHAT CHILDREN NEED… CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES 39  “All decent parents want to do what’s best for their children. The Chinese just have a totally different idea of how to do that” (Chua, 2011, p. 63). Different cultures have different definitions of… The “ideal child” Ages at which children should/could do things “Good parenting outcomes”  “Good parenting” How parental authority is implemented 40 What is Tiger Parenting? Chua (2011) Highly controlling, authoritarian Assumes child strength – little concern with self- esteem Parent knows best Source: https://gifer.com/en/BcmJ and over-rides to achieve desired outcome *RESEARCH EVIDENCE IN USA – A REAL PHENOMENON, BUT RELATIVELY RARE *PRECISE DEFINITION AND MEANING – DEBATABLE – VARIES ACROSS CONTEXTS, REPORTERS 41 Different Meanings of Control Applying Baumrind’s typologies to Asian families may be problematic (Chao & Tseng, 2002) o May not capture the types of control and warmth used and endorsed by these families Studies conducted on Chinese students in the US and Hong Kong suggest problematic Source: https://gifer.com/en/Jxve impact of authoritarian parenting on child self-esteem seems restricted to individualist cultures (Rudy 42 & Grusec, 2006) Different Meanings of Control Special Issue: Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2013, Volume 4 Studies suggest Baumrind’s typologies don’t quite capture Asian parenting styles o High demands (authoritarian aspects) + High warmth  “Ga-jung-kyo-yuk” – a blend of authoritarian and authoritative parenting  “Chiao shun” – highly directive training – respect for elders  associated with positive academic outcomes in Chinese children 43 43 Parenting and Acculturation: Migrant Parents (USA & Australia) Chinese American Parenting Beliefs (Cheah et al., 2013) Parents integrate “typical” Chinese and American parenting Acknowledge need to be flexible to accommodate mainstream cultural values Mothers adapted/blended their parenting after spending more time in new setting Vietnamese-Australian parents (Nguyen et al., 2014) “Harmonious balance between East and West” Desire to build closer connections with their children Recognition that traditional modes of parenting may be at odds with current environment Continued emphasis on cultural continuity, educational prowess central, and filial piety (honouring parents) 44 Conclusions Culture needs to be considered – different perspectives on duty and overt expressions of warmth But irrespective of culture… Harsh authoritarian parenting practices are associated with negative outcomes for children (Sorkhabi, 2005; Nelson et al., 2005; Yu et al., 2015) o Child internalising and externalising behaviour problems, hyperactivity, and emotional dysregulation in both majority and minority families More research needed to identify relations between functional and dysfunctional parenting practices in non-western cultures Parental sensitivity relates positively to child language, cognitive, and social-emotional skills across cultures (Tamis-Lamonda et al., 2009; Washington et al., 2015) 45 PART 2: Contexts for Development Family Structure & Ecology 46 Family Structure and Ecology Broader Context School and Community Family Child 47 Fathering Changes in Expectations/ Recognition of Role of Fathers Limited attention to fathers in developmental literature – generally mother focused (Lamb, 1975; 2010) or focused on father absence Early research on fathers’ involvement relied on maternal report For last 30 years normative for fathers to attend antenatal Source: https://giphy.com/friends/seasons/ season- classes and be present at birth 8/episode-24-the-one-where-rachel-has-a-baby- part-2 o Predicts ongoing involvement with child (Cabrera et al., 2008) 48 Fathering Involvement around the time of the birth Many men “nest build” Similar hormonal response for males and females (< testosterone, > prolactin)  Evidence fathers become “wired” for caregiving (Dayton et al., 2014)  research in its infancy Fathers who attend baby-care courses are more likely to take on more care later Men feel deeply moved by the experience of childbirth Mothers report fathers are their main source of support after the birth 49 Fathering Father Contributions to Children Fathers contribute to child social-emotional wellbeing over and above maternal contribution (Cabrera & Tamis-Lemonda, 2013; Fletcher 2011; Lamb, 2010) o May have a unique contribution regarding development of self-regulation and appropriate risk taking (e.g., Kochanksa et al, 2008) o Play differently? “Rough and tumble play” (e.g., Madjanzic et al., 2014) Father involvement associated with lower psychopathology in offspring (Barker et al., 2017) Father involvement is greater and may Source: https://tenor.com/view/ hug-cute- baby-sweet-gif-16083765 provide a compensatory/protective effect when mother is depressed/unavailable (Goodman et al., 2014) 50 Fathering Fatherhood in Australia: Influence and Competence  Interviews with fathers (Russell, 1978; 1994; 2003) Report having most influence over… o Child’s self-control/self-discipline (Empirical research supports this, e.g., Malin et al., 2014) o Attitudes and value Rate as most important… o Being accessible o Guiding and teaching o Providing income/economic security o Providing emotional support Competence and commitment o 71% feel very competent as a father o 97% say have a strong commitment to role as a father 51 Fathering Barriers to Fatherhood Still only a small number of reversed role families  father primary caregiver (~4% in Australia… but ^) Work-family challenges (Graeme Russell, Annabel Crabb, etc) o 68% of fathers surveyed felt they didn’t have enough time to spend with their children and that their workplaces didn’t support them o Access to parental leave? o ”Who’s looking after your 52 Fathering https:// 53 Grandparents Work-family challenges have also led to children spending more time in non- parental care  formal child care arrangements vs family care (e.g., grandparents) o Prohibitive cost of formal child care, family views, etc Involvement of grandparents across different cultures tends to vary For some children contact with grandparents may be minimal to non-existent 54 Siblings How Siblings Influence Development Companionship, comfort, play and learning opportunities (e.g., resolving conflicts) o Sibling relationships can fulfil attachment functions in adult life Friction, rivalry, jealousy, conflict o “Black Sheep” o Opportunities for social development? 55 Siblings Siblings as Tutors (Vygotsky, ToM research) Vygotsky – learning is social – tutors/life coaches o Benefits to older and younger child ToM and social cognition o Consistent evidence of earlier acquisition in children with siblings o More practice at conflict resolution o Mutual interest and understanding promotes interest in contents of other minds o Richer more varied social experiences 56 The “Only Child” Increasing social trend due (in part) to delayed childbearing No evidence for stereotyped “spoiled, selfish” (Amato, 1987) No evidence of any lasting cognitive, social deficits o May do better, but most research shows at least Source: https://tenor.com/view/milhouse-van- houten-only-child-mil-house-the-simpsons-gif- comparable outcomes 13915057 ? Compensatory 57 additional stimulation and  CHANGING CONTEXTS Source: https://giphy.com/gifs/leave-it-to-beaver-cleaver- cleavers-xT9IgtFoKzZr1Kfrxe 58 Divorce and Separation Association between Marital Conflict & Parenting Marital and parent-child relationships are inter- dependent  Happily married parents are more sensitive, responsive, warm to children than unhappily married parents Processes o Family Systems – triangulation, scapegoating, new alliances, boundary problems o Stress and Coping – marriage is a source of stress or support for the parenting role, may deplete or buffer… o Affective Spillover – Negative affect arising from marital conflict “spills over” into parenting (or vice versa… ) o Third Variable – personality/attachment style influences both marriage and parenting, assortative mating “If you want to look after the children, cherish the parents…” Bowlby (1982)  Promoting marital satisfaction promotes good 59 Divorce and Separation The Australian Family: 2017 ABS Census Divorce trends 1995 to 2017  peak in 2001 Decline in marriages; increase in cohabiting, esp. prior to marriage 36% marriages end in divorce Median age divorce men 45.5; women 42.9 Mean duration of marriage ending in divorce 12.1 years 47% of divorces involve children younger than 18 yrs Many couples repartner after divorce (13% 60 Divorce and Separation Outcomes of Divorce for Children A transition leading to a variety of living arrangements  Changes in family roles, financial stress, witnessing parental conflict & parental distress Most children experience emotional and behavioural problems in the first year Most show improved functioning by 2 years post divorce (Rapoport, 2013) About 20-25% have serious ongoing problems Even when marital problems are not serious, there can be painful memories, sadness, greater likelihood of own marriage ending in divorce, weaker ties to fathers (Amato, 2005) Problems can reappear or intensify following parental remarriage and at the time of adolescence/young adulthood 61 Divorce and Separation Determinants of Child Adjustment Post Divorce Child adjustment predicted by quality of parenting environment o Authoritative, consistent parenting by custodial parent o “Quality” contact with non-custodial parent o Capacity of divorced parents to establish & maintain co-operative shared parenting o Quality of relationships with step-parents are critical Timing of divorce also important  worse outcomes for children aged 11-16 years 62 Divorce and Separation Methodological Challenges Need to tease out contributions of divorce vs. pre- existing circumstances (e.g., parent characteristics, conflict) Moderators  Cumulative Risk Models Most important: Custodial parents’ psychological health/parenting capacity Dysfunctional family relationships (ongoing conflict, conflict of loyalties) Quality relations between non-custodial parent & children post-divorce Child characteristics (eg., age, gender, temperament, special needs) Social/financial supports *DV exposure Step families – major impact on parenting capacity, wellbeing 63 Divorce and Separation Shared Parenting 1) Cooperative Talk about children Avoid arguments Support each other’s parenting efforts 2) Conflicted Talk about children but with criticism, acrimony and defensiveness Child “caught” in cross-fire Undermine each other’s parenting Source: https://giphy.com/explore/coparent 3) Disengaged Parallel parenting—each parent adopts own style and does not interfere with the other’s parenting Communication with each other avoided, except through children Reduces direct conflict but also cooperation 64 Divorce and Separation Final Thoughts… Should parents stay together for the sake of their children? o If children are to be exposed to ongoing parental conflict, may fare better post-separation Presence of an authoritative custodial parent is critical for children BUT parenting quality is compromised under financial stress No evidence that fathers or mothers are superior custodial parent o Parent’s motivation to be the custodial parent is what is important Source: Shared (cooperative) parenting is https://gfycat.com/rarescrawnyiridescentshark ideal, but research to date is equivocal about overnight stays/shared households o May depend on child’s developmental 65 Step-Families 13% of Australian families have step- children Most family members perceive remarriage as a positive life event Many remarried families achieve a workable integration Source: https://gifer.com/en/IwS8 BUT… 66 Step-Families 13% of Australian families have step- children Remarriage may be experienced as difficult and relationships with step-parents can be complicated (esp. for young adolescents) Higher divorce rate for remarriages Source: https://tenor.com/view/mad-eyes-disney- Multiple marital cinderella-shade-gif-7796247 transitions associated with compromised 67 “The New Normal”: Contemporary Family Structures Single Parenting – challenges depend on context o Poverty, parental age, support Adolescent Parenthood – poverty, impact on education/employment Parenting after ART (see Source: https://giphy.com/gifs/your-happy- Golombok, 2017) o Non-genetic workplace-wendy-conrad-new-normal- parenting (disclosure) VCtbkdWLFfZmOpvzV2 o Genetically Same related Sex Parenthood o Negative presumptions need to be subjected to scrutiny  Findings to date categorically suggest comparable development, main problem is stigma (Qu, Knight, & Higgins, 2016) (for more information, see https://apo.org.au/sites/default/files/resource-files/2016-09/apo-nid679 68 86.pdf Summing Up What Children Need Family structures vary; Exposure to stressful events varies; Critical factor is quality of parent-child relationship (and parent- parent relationships) Sensitive, responsive, authoritative, consistent parenting Associations between parenting practices and child wellbeing apply irrespective of race, sexuality, ethnicity or income (Amato & Fowler, 2002) Capacity for parenting depends on (Belsky’s model) Parent characteristics (Internal resources) – ego-strength, flexibility, secure attachment working model that allows for perspective taking Contextual factors (External resources) – availability of social/partner support, adequate housing, financial security Child characteristics – temperament, disability, etc Important to remember… “Social Address” in terms of economic advantage or disadvantage also impacts a parent’s ability to provide their child certain opportunities. Cross-cultural variability – applicability of Western parenting models to non-Western cultures? 69 REMINDER!!! LITERATURE REVIEW DUE AT START OF THE MID- SESSION BREAK (40%) Monday 16 September by 11:55pm 70  THANK YOU  See you next… Wait, no, I won’t see you next week! Following the mid-session break the unit will resume with… A/Prof Kay Bussey Gender Development 71