Developmental Psychology Overheads Part 2 F24 PDF

Developmental Psychology Part 2: Childhood continued: Attachment Vygotsky (the sociocultural view) The role of parenting styles Adolescence: Kohlberg and moral reasoning Erickson and the search for identity Early Social and Emotional Understanding Infants se...

Developmental Psychology Part 2: Childhood continued: Attachment Vygotsky (the sociocultural view) The role of parenting styles Adolescence: Kohlberg and moral reasoning Erickson and the search for identity Early Social and Emotional Understanding Infants seek out human faces and respond to the faces they see. Between 4 and 7 months of age, infants can tell the difference between happy, sad, and angry facial and vocal expressions. Infants rely on other people for guidance. Social referencing: A process of using others’ facial expressions for information about how to react to a situation. Infants learn which behaviors predict others. Early Emotional Development: Attachment  Attachment (preview slide) Attachment: close emotional bonds of affection Separation anxiety: emotional distress when separated from caregivers Harlow’s monkeys: contact comfort over nourishment Bowlby: attachment has survival value for infants Parent‒child attachment fosters social and emotional development © 2022 Cengage Learning Canada Inc. 5 First Love: Forming Attachment Children form their first social relationship with a primary caregiver. Attachment: The strong, enduring, emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver. Imprinting: A mechanism for establishing attachment early in life that operates according Imprinted ducklings stick to a relatively simple rule of like glue to Konrad Lorenz. attaching to the first moving object an organism sees. Forming Attachment Researchers originally believed that human infants became attached to those who satisfied their need for food. Harry Harlow (1905–1981) o Attachment is not solely by the need for nourishment. o Nourishment and contact comfort are often provided at the same time. Harry Harlow and the monkey experiment Harry Harlow gave infant monkeys a choice between: a bare wire "mother" containing a feeding bottle and another covered in terry cloth. The monkeys used the wire mother for food but showed a clear preference for the cloth mother (Harlow, 1958). Forming Attachment John Bowlby Comfort and not nutrition is crucial for human attachment. Children become attached to a caregiver who provides a secure base, a place in which the child feels safe and protected. A source of safety that allows the child to explore the environment Forming Attachment When monkeys reared in isolation were grown and became mothers themselves, they were typically neglectful. As shown in this historical image, the “motherless mother” largely ignores her own infant. Many Romanian orphanages in the 1960s through the 1980s provided inadequate care and minimal social contact. Psychology of Affection Watch this video on attachment as shown through Harry Harlow’s research. Individual Differences in Attachment Variations in attachment Mary Ainsworth created the strange situation test. This test revealed three attachment styles of children: o Secure attachment o Insecure attachment Insecure/avoidant attachment Insecure/ambival- ent attachment Individual Differences in Attachment A child’s attachment style has powerful long-term consequences. Securely attached infants grow to o Be more socially appealing o Be more socially skilled o Be more successful in mastering language and other challenging tasks o Show fewer behavioral problems o Be less likely to develop anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence © 2022 Cengage Learning Canada Inc. 15 Vygotsky and the sociocultural view of development Learning From the Social World Sociocultural view of development: Lev Vygotsky’s proposal that the child’s mind grows through social interaction with knowledgeable others. Scaffolding: A process of promoting cognitive development by actively challenging and supporting children as they attempt things that are beyond their current capabilities. Gender Development in Childhood (11.16) Gender socialization comes from media, toys, parents, peers, and so on. Children use this information to develop a gender schema that includes assumptions about how different genders should think, feel, and act. Children typically develop a gender identity by the age of 3 and often tend to think about and express gender in stereotypical and inflexible ways across the preschool years. By elementary school, children’s understanding of gender becomes less rigid. How influential are parents? Two dimensions to differences in parenting styles have been proposed: How sensitive and responsive they are to their child’s actions or needs How demanding or controlling they are of their children’s behavior  Types of parenting styles Parenting Styles: Authoritarian Authoritarian parents Authoritarian parents have Low on responsiveness children who are/have: Highly demanding Obedient and respectful toward adults ​ Show worse academic performance ​ Lower self-esteem Parenting Styles: Authoritative Authoritative parents Authoritative parents have Very responsive children who are/have: Very demanding Self-reliant, self-controlled, curious, and happy Higher academic achievement Adaptive problem-solving Reduced risk of depression Healthier body weight  Permissive parents Disengaged parents High on Not responsive responsiveness Not demanding Low on demands Parenting Styles: Disengaged parents have Permissive parents have children who are/have: Permissive children who are/have: Low academic Disengaged Score high on self- performance​ confidence High rates of Low on self-control depression, and more unhealthy behaviors like smoking Notes on Parenting Styles Impact of parenting styles may depend on the sociocultural context o Authoritarian parenting is associated with more independence and self-confidence among African American girls. o Disengaged parenting is associated with higher risk of depression for Asian girls and African American. Children can differ in ways that evoke different parenting styles. Class Discussion: Parenting Styles & Culture You’ve learned about several parenting styles: authoritarian, permissive, disengaged, authoritative. These parenting styles, as well as their associations with cognitive and affective development, have been found to differ across cultures. Given this, consider “parenting advice,” or guidelines on how to best raise children. Can you think of examples where parenting advice stigmatizes parents from certain culture backgrounds? How can such parenting guidelines be made to help child development without prioritizing the norms and values of one culture over another? Adolescence A Changing Body and Brain (11.18) Adolescence: The period of transition between childhood and adulthood. Puberty: The period of sexual maturation during which males and females become capable of reproduction. Primary sex characteristics: Body structures, such as ovaries, testes, and external genitalia, that make sexual reproduction possible. Secondary sex characteristics: Nonreproductive body structures, such as hips, torsos, voices, and body hair, that make the body look more “adult.” A Changing Body and Brain On average, puberty begins at age 11 for females and 13 for males. Puberty can begin at different times for different individuals. Genetics partly determine the timing of puberty A Changing Body and Brain On average, puberty begins at age 11 for females and 13 for males. For females, a critical landmark of puberty is the first menstrual period, or menarche, around age 12½. A Changing Body and Brain On average, puberty begins at age 11 for females and 13 for males. Males experience spermarche, or first ejaculation, usually by age 14. A Changing Body and Brain For cisgender boys, early puberty comes with advantages. Being bigger and stronger than one’s peers o Can lead to improved social status For cisgender girls, early maturation can be less advantageous. o Changing bodies make it harder to fit in with peers. o Can attract unwelcome attention from older boys A Changing Body and Brain Adolescence and the brain Burst of synaptic growth just before puberty Followed by a second wave of synaptic pruning Myelination continues to increase. The limbic system goes through changes more rapidly than the prefrontal cortex. Prefrontal cortex is not fully developed in adolescence Advances in Reasoning (11.9) Kohlberg’s three levels of moral reasoning Preconventional stage: A period in moral development in which people make moral judgments based on self- interest, such as avoiding punishments and gaining rewards. Conventional stage: A period in moral development in which people make moral judgments based on caring for others and upholding social roles and rules. Postconventional stage: A period in moral development in which people make moral judgments based on ideals and broad moral principles. © 2022 Cengage Learning Canada Inc. 33 Activity: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Please read the following scenario: A college student realizes that the university has mistakenly credited their account for one full semester of tuition costs. Should they inform anyone? Why would the person report or not report the clerical error, according to each stage of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development? Please explain your reasoning.  The Transition of Adolescence Physiological changes Pubescence Puberty Secondary sex characteristics Primary sex characteristics Menarche Sperm production Maturation: early vs. late Sex differences in effects of early maturation © 2022 Cengage Learning Canada Inc. 35 Neural Development: The Teen Brain Volume of white matter grows throughout adolescence, while grey matter declines. Suggests enhanced connectivity in the brain and synaptic pruning, respectively. Most noticeable in prefrontal cortex oPFC is the last part of the brain to fully mature (mid- 20s) PFC is executive control centre for cognitive development and emotion regulation © 2022 Cengage Learning Canada Inc. 36 Time of Turmoil? Adolescence is time of change and transition For some, time of turmoil and distress Rates of depression ~20% Suicide: 2nd leading cause of death among Canadian youth and young adults. Significantly higher among Métis, Inuit, First Nations youth Cultural continuity factors © 2022 Cengage Learning Canada Inc. 37  The Search for Identity Erik Erikson (1968) Key challenge—forming a sense of identity James Marcia (1988) 4 identity statuses Foreclosure Moratorium Identity diffusion Identity achievement © 2022 Cengage Learning Canada Inc. 38 An Evolving Sense of “I” and “We” Erik Erikson (1902–1994) One of the first theorists to argue that adolescents struggle for identity Erikson’s Eight Developmental Stages Study Unit 11.20 An Evolving Sense of “I” and “We” (2) STAGE DEVELOPMENTAL TASK PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS Infancy Attachment to mother, which Trust versus mistrust (0 to ½ years) lays foundation for later trust in others Early childhood Gaining some basic control of Autonomy versus shame and (1½ to 3 years) self and environment (e.g., doubt toilet training, exploration) Preschool (3 to 6 Becoming purposeful and Initiative versus guilt years) directive School age Developing social, physical, Competence versus inferiority (6 years to and school skills puberty) Study Unit 11.20 An Evolving Sense of “I” and “We” (3) STAGE DEVELOPMENTAL TASK PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS Adolescence Making transition from childhood to Identity versus role adulthood; developing a sense of confusion identity Adulthood Establishing intimate bonds of love Intimacy versus isolation and friendship Middle age Fulfilling life goals that involve family, Productivity versus career, and society; developing stagnation concerns that embrace future generations Later years Looking back over one’s life and Integrity versus despair accepting its meaning An Evolving Sense of “I” and “We” Social identity: A sense of identity that is rooted in group memberships. Emerging adulthood: The period between adolescence and adulthood, roughly the ages of 18 to 25, when people take time to finish schooling, gain financial independence from their parents, and establish careers and families. © 2022 Cengage Learning Canada Inc. 43 Erikson’s Eight Developmental Stages: something to think about Can you think of other psychosocial crises that don’t fit neatly into one of the stages of psychosocial development, or that may reoccur over time? Which stage of development do you feel you are currently experiencing in life? Does this match with Erikson’s predictions of the general ages at which people experience these stages? How could these stages differ depending on culture context? How could they differ by gender?