Quantitative Research Methodology PDF

PRACTICAL QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Design - It refers to an overall strategy that a RESEARCH 2...

PRACTICAL QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Design - It refers to an overall strategy that a RESEARCH 2 researcher uses to logically and coherently integrate the various components of a study. 2nd Quarter Sampling - A process through which a researchers selects portion or segment from the population at the center of the researchers' study. LESSON 1: Instrument - Instruments are tools used to gather UNDERSTANDING data for a particular research topic. DATA AND WAYS TO RESEARCH DESIGNS 1. Descriptive COLLECT DATA - To systematically collect data about the phenomenon. Describe the ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF METHODOLOGY phenomenon. 2. Correlational 3. Ex Post Facto 1. Research Design. A very Important aspect of - Nangyari na, and pag aaralan na lang research methodology which also describes the ang epekto nito (e.g., Martial Law) research mode-whether it is qualitative or 4. Quasi Experimental quantitative, or if the researcher will use a - Manipulation of an Independent specific research type such as descriptive, Variable without the Random survey, historical, case, or experimental. Assignment. Almost same with 2. Respondents of the Study. Describes the Experimental. target population and sample frame. 5. True or Pure Experimental 3. Instruments of the Study. Describes the specific type of research instrument that will be used such as questionnaire, checklist, EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS questionnaire-checklist, interview schedule, - Is concerned primarily with cause & effect teacher-made test, and the like. relationships in studies that involves 4. Establishing validity and reliability. The manipulation or control of the independent instrument must past validity and reliability tests variables (causes) and measurement of the before it is utilized. dependent variable (effect). 5. Statistical Treatment. One of many ways of establishing the objectivity of research findings In experimental research, there are variables that are is by subject the data to different but not part of the study but are believed to influence the appropriate statistical formulas and processes. outcomes. These are called intervening or extraneous variables. These variables are part of the study limitations. These extraneous or intervening variables are labeled threats to internal or external validity (Campbell & Stanley, as cited in Nieswiadomy 2004). Validity: It measures what it supposed to measure. THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY Selection Bias - This results when the subjects or respondents of the study are not randomly selected.  Maturation TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH - This happens when the experiment is DESIGNS conducted beyond a longer period of True Experimental time during which most of the subjects - A design is considered a true undergo physical, emotional, and/or experiment when the following criteria psychological changes. are present: the researcher History manipulates the experimental variables, - This refers to a threat to internal validity that is, the researcher has control over which happens during the conduct of the independent variables, as well as the study when an unusual event the treatment and the subjects; there affects the result of an experiment. must be one experimental group and Instrumentation Change one comparison or control group; and - The instrument used in gathering the the subjects are randomly assigned data must not be changed or replaced either to the comparison or during the conduct of the study. experimental group. - The instrument must also be applied to all respondents or subjects. Mortality Pretest-Posttest 1. Subjects are Controlled Group randomly - There is a threat to validity when one or assigned to more subjects die; drop out, or transfer groups. as in the case of a student who has not 2. A pretest is given completed his or her participation in the to both groups. experiment. 3. The experimental Testing group receives - The testing threat may occur in a study the treatment while the control when a pretest is given to subjects who group does not. have knowledge of baseline data. 4. A posttest is Testing bias is the influence of the given to both pretest or knowledge of baseline data groups. on the posttest scores. Posttest-Only 1. Subjects are randomly THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY assigned to Experimenter Effect groups. - This threat appears when the 2. The experimental characteristics of the researcher affect group receives the behavior of the subjects or the treatment respondents. while the control group does not Hawthorne Effect receive the - This occurs when the respondents or treatment. subjects respond artificially to the 3. A posttest is treatment because they know they are given to both being observed as part of a research groups. study. Solomon-Four 1. Subjects are Measurement Effect randomly - It is also called the reactive effects of assigned to four the pretest. It occurs when subjects groups. have been exposed to the treatment 2. Two of the through taking the pretest. This groups exposure might affect the posttest (experimental results. If there is a prior announcement group 1 and control group 1) of the conduct of the study, the subjects are pretested. might prepare, and this will give a 3. The other two superficial result. groups  -Longitudinal. Same people at different (experimental group 2 and times. control group 2) 4. Purpose or Objectives receive the - Descriptive, Correlational, routine treatment Comparative, and Evaluative. or no treatment. 4. A posttest is given to all four PARTICIPANTS OF THE STUDY groups. - It is very impractical for the researcher to get data from the entire population especially if it is very large. Quasi Experimental - A design in which either there is no Respondents (Non Experimental) control group or the subjects are not Subjects (Experimental) randomly assigned to groups. THINGS TO REMEMBER IN SAMPLING Nonequivalent This design is similar to TECHNIQUE Controlled Group the pretest-posttest Subjects control group design - Can be individuals or groups to which except there is no random assignment of interventions or processes are applied. subjects to the In some studies, the subjects are the experimental and control respondents themselves, but in other groups. researches, the subjects are not necessarily the respondents. Time-Series The researcher Participants or Respondents periodically observes or measures the subjects. - The participants or respondents are individuals or groups of people that serve as the sources of information NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS during data collection. Survey Studies Population - In this type of research design, - The population is composed of persons investigations are conducted through or objects that possess some common self-report. Surveys generally ask characteristics that are of interest to the respondents to report on their attitudes, researcher. opinions, perceptions, or behaviors. - There are two groups within the Thus, survey studies aim at describing population: characteristics, opinions, attitudes, and 1. The target population behaviors as they currently exist in a consists of the entire group of population (Wilson,1990). people or objects to which, the findings of the study generally SURVEYS CAN BE CATEGORIZED apply. ACCORDING TO: 2. The accessible population is 1. Whom the Data is collected from the specific study population. - Sample: Representative of a Total Parameter Population - A numeric characteristic of a - Group: Smaller than Mass population. - Mass: Larger than Group Sample or Sampling Size 2. Methods used to collect data - A sample is a subset of the entire - Telephone, Email, Text Messages, population or a group of individuals that Social Media, & FTF Interaction represents the population and serves 3. Time Orientation as the respondents of the study. - Retrospective. Identified in the present. Element - Cross-Sectional. Data are collected at - A single member of the sample is a single point in time. called an element.  4. The use of formulas. 4 WAYS TO DETERMINE SAMPLE SIZE a. Slovin’;s formula. It is used to compute for 1. Heuristics sample size (Sevilla et al., 2003). This formula - Normally used in qualitative studies is used when you have limited information because it utilizes. about the characteristics of the population and - “Introspection”; are using a non-probability sampling procedure - In n, it refers to the rule of thumb for the (Ellen, 2018). sample size used in a study. b. Calmorin's formula. This is used when the population is more than 100 and the researcher decides to utilize scientific sampling (Calmorin & Calmorin, 2003) 5. Other considerations: ➔ Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling distribution of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990). ➔ When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may serve ad sample size. This is called universal sampling. 2. Literature Review ➔ The following are the acceptable sizes for - Read similar studies to yours and different types of research (Gay, 1976): check the sample size that they used. a. Descriptive research -10% to 20% may 3. Formulas be required - Determining the size using a Formula. b. Correlational research - 30 subjects or (Raosoft Site) respondents 4. Power Analysis c. Comparative research - 15 subjects per - Used to determine the sample size group. sufficient for measuring the effect size. d. Experimental design - 15 to 30 subjects - Most précised From the principle of per group Statistical Power. KINDS OF SAMPLING 1. Probability Sampling - Refers to the selection of a sample, based on the principle of the randomization - Types of Probability: 1. Simple Random - In which the researchers randomly select a subset of participants from a population. Fair chances inside a population. (e.g., Roleta, FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DETERMINING Fishball) THE SAMPLE SIZE 2. Stratified - The population is 1. Homogeneity of the population. The higher divided into Strata (based on the degree of variation within the population, their groupings, or the smaller the sample size that can be utilized. characteristics). Each Starata 2. Degree of precision desired by the shall have an equal level of researcher. A larger sample size will result in chance greater precision or accuracy of results. 3. Cluster - Big Population (e.g., 3. Types of sampling procedure. Probability Filipino People into Clusters sampling utilizes smaller sample sizes than based on Region, Ethnicity, non- probability sampling etc.)  4. Systematic - Selecting every 2. Unstructured certain number (e.g., every - Do not provide options and the third in the population shall be respondents are free to give whatever selected). Sequenced. answer they want. TYPES OF QUESTIONS 2. Non-Probability Sampling Recognition Type - Choosing using a subjective method - Alternative responses are already - Types of Non Probability provided, and the respondents simply 1. Convenience - Choosing choose among the given choices. It available sample around your also contains close-ended questions. environment. Based on: Completion Type Geographical & Availability - The respondents are asked to fill in the 2. Quota - The population is blanks with the necessary information. divided into homogenous data. Questions are open-ended. Similar to stratified sampling. Coding Type 3. Purposive - Selected because - Numbers are assigned to names, they have the characteristic. choices, and other pertinent data. This entails knowledge of statistics on the part of the researcher, as the INSTRUMENTS OF THE STUDY application of statistical formulas is 1. Interview and and Observation necessary to arrive at the findings. 2. Test Subjective Type 3. Questionnaire - The respondents are free to give their opinions about an issue of concern. Combination Type RESEARCH INSTRUMENT - The questionnaire is a combination of - Inter coder or inter rater: two or more types of questions. Agreement refers to the level of concurrence between the scores given by two or more WORDINGS OF QUESTIONS raters. State questions in an affirmative rather than in a - Take Note!!! negative manner. - Observation, interview, assessment of Avoid ambiguous questions. performance tasks are prone to subjectivity. Avoid double negative questions. - Consider having “CODER OR EVALUATOR”. Avoid double barrelled questions. 3 WAYS TO DEVELOP YOUR INSTRUMENT SCALES USED IN AN INSTRUMENT 1. Adopting Likert Scale - This means that you will utilize an instrument that has been used in well- known institutions or reputable studies and publications. 2. Modifying - To change its content base on your study. 3. Creating your own Semantic Differential Scale - Create your own and undergo to the validity and reliability tests. TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DATA 1. Structured COLLECTION - Provide possible answers and 1. It must be concise yet able to elicit the needed respondents just have to select from data. According to Shelley (1984), the length of them. a questionnaire must be two to four pages and  the maximum time of answering is ten minutes. consistency of scores. Conduct the A desirable length of each question is less than retest after a short period of time. 20 words. Equivalent Forms Reliability 2. It seeks information which cannot be obtained - Is measured by administering two tests from other sources like documents that are identical in all aspects except the actual available at hand. wording of items. Two test have the 3. Questions must be arranged in sequence, from same coverage. (level of difficulty) the simplest to the most complex. PRE-TEST & POST-TEST. 4. It must also be arranged according to the Internal Consistency Reliability questions posed in the statement of the - Is a measure of how well the items in problem. two instruments measure the same 5. It should pass validity and reliability. construct. 6. It must be easily tabulated and interpreted. - Three ways to measure I-C LESSON 2: RESEARCH reliability: 1. The Split half method/ Split INSTRUMENT Half Coefficient - Obtained through RESEARCH INSTRUMENT administering a single instrument aimed at - Used to gather data for a particular topic. measuring only one construct. While INSTRUMENT’S VALIDITY computing, the results - Refers in the degree to which an instrument are divided into two measure what it is supposed to measure. sets for the - FACE:When it “appears” to measure the comparison. variables being studied. NOTE! This is prone to 2. Cronbach's Alpha subjectivity. - Measure's reliability - CONTENT: Degree to which an instrument with respect to each covers a representative sample or specific item and construct elements of the variable to be measured. being examined by the - CONSTRUCT: Degree to which an instrument instrument. measures the variables being studied as a 3. Kuder-Richardson Formula whole. - Test reliability in terms - CONCURRENT: When it is able to predict of instruments of a results similar to those of a test already dichotomous nature, validated in the past. e.g. Admission Test=NAT such as yes or no - PREDICTIVE: When it is able to predict results tests. similar to those of another instrument that will Inter-Rater Reliability be employed in the future. e.g College - Measures the consistency of scores Admission Test assigned by two or more raters on a certain set of results. RESEARCH RELIABILITY - Refers to the consistency of the measures of an LIKERT SCALE QUESTIONNAIRE instrument. It is an aspect Involved in the - Is typically a five, seven, or nine-point accuracy of the measurement. agreement scale used to measure respondents' agreement with various statements. TYPES OF RESEARCH RELIABILITY Organizational psychologist Rensis Likert Test-Retest Reliability developed the Likert Scale to assess the level - Achieved by administering an of agreement or disagreement of a symmetric instrument twice to the same group of agree-disagree scale. participants and the computing the  LESSON 3: DATA PROCESSING RESEARCH DATA - Research data is any information that has been collected, observed, generated or created to validate original research findings. - Means the result of observations or experimentation that validate research findings and that are published separate to the Article, which can include but are not limited to raw data, processed data, software, algorithms, protocols, and methods. TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA Observational Data - Are captured through observation of a behavior or activity. It is collected using methods such as human observation, open- ended surveys, or the use of an instrument or sensor to monitor and record information. Experimental Data - Are collected through active intervention by the researcher to produce and measure change or to create difference when a variable is GOOGLE FORMS altered. Simulation Data - All validated questionnaire will be transferred - Are generated by imitating the into google forms as preparation on data operation of a real-world process or gathering. system over time using computer test models. Derived/Compiled Data - Involves using existing data points, often from different data sources, to create new data through some sort of transformation, such as an arithmetic formula or aggregation. INFORMED CONSENT FORM - A document that explains the objectives of the WHAT IS DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUE? study and the extent of the participants’ - This stage of the research process involves the involvement in your research. organization of the collected information as well as the elimination of unnecessary and CROWD SOURCING problematic ones. Specifically data processing - Finding your participants. involves editing, coding, tabulating, and - A process use to gather participants by posting summarizing information through graphs and on the different social media platforms. tables. STEPS IN DATA PROCESSING SEVERAL FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN 1. Editing INTERPRETING GRAPHS - Is a process wherein the data collected Date and time are checked for consistency, accuracy, Start your graph interpretation by naming the organization, and clarity. figures you are attempting to explain. 2. Coding Begin with explaining what the graph is about. - Is a process where the gathered data are classified into categories, numerals, OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING WHEN symbols, or other systems of labelling. ORGANIZING YOUR RESULTS/DATA: 3. Tabulation Intellectual Honesty - Is a process of condensing the raw - Utmost objectivity and integrity in one’s data into a more compact form. Table is research. used for this purpose. Falsification - Refers to changing of data Fabrication LESSON 4: - Refers to making up results or data. PRESENTATION & LESSON 5: RESULTS INTERPRETATION OF AND DISCUSSION DATA RESULTS AND DISCUSSION NON PROSE MATERIAL - It reports and explains the data that you have - Is a graphic or visual representations of obtained in your research. sets of data or information. - It can be considered the “MEAT” of your paper. 2 NON PROSE MATERIAL RESULTS 1. Tables - Presents the data that you have collected. This - Classify Information using columns and portion limits itself to the presentation of facts rows. and key findings as they are. 2. Graphs - Unlike tables, graphs do not merely list down the collected data with respect to a certain category. Graphs use bars, lines, circles and picture in representing the data. Bar Graph Contains vertical and horizontal bars and comparisons of amounts and quantities. Line Graph Shows trends and changes in the data. Circle Graph Also known as PIE DISCUSSION GRAPH – shows the - Provides the explanation for the results that you relationship of parts to a have reported. The discussion portion is an whole, usually in important part of a research paper because it percentages and tests your skills in thinking critically, solving proportions. problems, as well as in understanding and explaining phenomena.  - Relate to the issues concerning the support, refutation and supplementation of existing models and concepts in your field of study. LIMITATION OF THE STUDY - Refers to the factors that the researchers fail to control or use and can be addressed by subsequent studies. RECOMMENDATIONS First Part - Provide an actual course of action through which these areas of concern CONCLUSION can be addressed. - To Make a lasting impression. Second Part - Discusses the generalizations, deductions and - Considered with stating how future inferences that can be obtained from your studies can address the limitations findings encountered in your research. - Base it from the Significance of the Study. SUMMARY - Briefly states your major findings that correspond to each of the research questions or objectives. LESSON 6: PRACTICAL IMPLICATION PRELIMINARIES, - Relate to the issues in real-life contexts that can be addressed through the findings. ABSTRACT, & THEORETICAL IMPLICATION APPENDICES - Relate to the issues concerning materials and processes in research. ABSTRACT - The Overview of your Research Paper METHODOLOGICAL IMPLICATION HOW TO DEVELOP YOUR RESEARCH ABSTRACT?  1. Introduce the Topic - Explain and define your topic briefly. It should be formal and the words should GUIDELINES ON APPENDICES MAKING be coming from the Researcher. 2. Cite Important RRLs/RRS in your Research 1. Provide 2x2 Picture - Briefly indicate the most helpful - Each Researchers should provide a literature of your research that will recent copy of their picture with white support your claim. background. Paste it on the upper right 3. Summarize the content of your Methodology corner of the paper. - Share the design, sampling technique, - On the upper left, include your full instrumentation, and data analysis. name, address, email ad, and number. 4. State the Findings, main conclusion, and 2. Answer the following individually: recommendations. Education (Elementary to Present) Personal Information Awards/ recognitions received NOTE: 250 Words are expected to be the Maximum Count of words in your Abstract. Put your Abstract in an open box and choose 5 distinct words from your Research that will serve as your Keywords. Don’t forget the Sentence Write down your full name and an E-Signature above your name. Under your name, “Researcher” as your distinction. Appendices should not have its number page. APPENDICES MAKING - A compilation of all pertinent document your research paper has. Seen after the Reference list. Appendix A - Sample Letters. Include the plain copy of your consent form or any letter. Appendix B - Sample Instrument. Include all the clean instruments. Appendix C - Raw Data. Include all the tables/tabulation that you never got to include in your manuscript. Appendix D - Curriculum Vitae.