Essential Elements of Research Methodology PDF

# Essential Elements of the Research Methodology 1. **Research Design** - Defines the type of research; qualitative, quantitative, descriptive, survey, historical, case, or experimental 2. **Respondents of the Study** - Defines the target population and the sample frame 3. **Instrument of the St...

# Essential Elements of the Research Methodology 1. **Research Design** - Defines the type of research; qualitative, quantitative, descriptive, survey, historical, case, or experimental 2. **Respondents of the Study** - Defines the target population and the sample frame 3. **Instrument of the Study** - Defines the type of research instruments to be used; questionnaires, checklists, interview schedules, teacher-made tests 4. **Establishing Validity and Reliability** - The instrument must pass validity and reliability tests 5. **Statistical Treatment** - Objectivity of research findings is established using appropriate statistical formulas and processes 6. **Testing** - The influence of the pretest or knowledge of baseline data on the posttest scores. Subjects may remember the answers they put on the pretest and will put the same answers on the posttest. The time of the conduct of the test should also be considered. ## Quantitative research Designs ### Experimental Designs - **True Experimental Design** - Pretest-posttest control design - Posttest only control group - Solomon four-group - **Quasi-Experimental Designs** - Non equivalent - Time series - **Pre-Experimental Designs** - One-shot case study - One group pretest-posttest ### Non-experimental Designs - Action Studies - Comparative Studies - Correlational Studies - Developmental Studies - Evaluation Studies - Meta-Analysis Studies - Methodological Studies - Needs Assessment Studies - Secondary Analysis Studies - Survey Studies ## Threats to External Validity 1. **Experimenter effect** - The characteristics of the researcher affect the behavior of the subjects or respondents 2. **Hawthorne effect** - Subjects respond artificially to the treatment because they know they are being observed as part of a research study. 3. **Measurement effect** - Subjects have been exposed to the treatment through taking the pretest. ## Types of Experimental Research Designs ### True Experimental Design - The researcher has control over the independent variables, as well as the treatment and the subjects. - There is one experimental group and one comparison or control group. - Subjects are randomly assigned to either the comparison or experimental group. - The control group does not receive the treatment. - **Pretest-posttest controlled group design** 1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups. 2. A pretest is given to both groups. 3. The experimental group receives the treatment while the control group does not. 4. A posttest is given to both groups. - **Posttest-only controlled group design** 1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups. 2. The experimental group receives the treatment while the control group does not receive the treatment. 3. A posttest is given to both groups. - **Solomon four-group design** 1. Subjects are randomly assigned to four groups. 2. Two of the groups (experimental group 1 and control group 1) are pretested. 3. The other two groups (experimental group 2 and control group 2) receive the routine treatment or no treatment. 4. A posttest is given to all four groups. ### Quasi-experimental design - There is either no control group or the subjects are not randomly assigned to groups. - **Non-equivalent controlled group design** Similar to the pretest-posttest control group design, except there is no random assignment of subjects - **Time-series design** - The researcher periodically observes or measures the subjects. ### Pre-experimental design - Researcher has little control over the research. - **One-shot case study** - A single group is exposed to an experimental treatment and observed after the treatment. - **One-group pretest-posttest design** - Provides a comparative description of a group of subjects before and after the experimental treatment. ## Non-experimental Research Designs: Survey Studies - Investigations are conducted through self-report - Surveys ask respondents to report on their attitudes, opinions, perceptions, or behaviors - Aim at describing characteristics, opinions, attitudes, and behaviors - **Categorized by:** - **Whom the data is collected from** - **Sample** - A representative of the total population - **Group** - Smaller than a mass - **Mass** - Larger than a group - **Methods used to collect the data** - Telephone - Text messages - Snail mail - E-mail or other social media modalities - Face-to-face interaction - **Time Orientation** - **Retrospective** - Dependent variable identified in the present, determine past independent variable. - **Cross-sectional** - Data collected at a single point in time, subjects represent different points of the experience. - **Longitudinal** - Collect data from the same people at different times. - **Purpose or objectives** - **Descriptive** - Accurately portray a chosen population, determine the extent or direction of attitudes or behaviors. - **Comparative** - Compare and contrast representative samples - **Correlational** - Investigate relationships among variables - **Evaluative** - Delineate, obtain, and provide information to judge decision alternatives when conducting a program or service. # Participants of the Study - Subjects are individuals or groups to which interventions or processes are applied. - May or may not be the respondents. - **Population** - Composed of persons or objects that possess some common characteristics: - **Target population** - Entire group to which findings generally apply - **Accessible population** - Specific study population - **Sample** - A subset of the entire population that represents the population. - **Parameter** - A numeric characteristic of a population. - **Statistic** - A numeric characteristic of a sample. - **Element** - A single member of the sample ## Ways to Determine the Sample Size - Larger the sample, the more reliable the results - **Factors to Consider:** - Homogeneity of the population - Degree of precision - Types of sampling procedure - **Formulas** - **Slovin's formula** - Used to compute sample size when you have limited information about the characteristics of the population and using non-probability sampling. - **Calmorin's formula** - Used when the population is more than 100 and the researcher decides to utilize scientific sampling. ## Kinds of Sampling ### Probability Sampling - All members of the population are given a chance of being selected. - **Simple random sampling** - Members of the population are given an equal chance of being selected. - **Methods** - Roulette wheel, fishbowl technique, table of random numbers. - **Stratified random sampling** - The population is first divided into different strata then the sampling follows. (Age, gender, educational qualifications) - **Cluster sampling** - The population is geographically spread out. Samples are chosen from each cluster. - **Systematic sampling** - Selecting every *nth* element of the population. ### Non-probability Sampling - The members of the entire population do not have an equal chance of being selected. - **Convenience sampling** - Select respondents who are present during the research visit. - **Quota sampling** - The population is divided into homogenous strata, then sample elements are selected from each stratum. - **Purposive sampling** - The researcher handpicks subjects. # Investigation: Data Collection Techniques - Data collection is impossible without the use of instruments. - **Most Frequently Used Data Collection Techniques:** - **Documentary Analysis** - Analyze primary and secondary sources. - **Interview** - Conduct a focus group discussion, obtain life histories, record using audiotapes, videotapes, smartphones. - Unstructured - Structured - Semi-structured - **Observation** - Structured - Unstructured - **Physiological Measures** - Collect physical data from the subjects. - **Psychological Tests** - Personality inventories, projective techniques. - Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) - Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) - Rorschach Inkblot Test - Thematic Apperception Test - **Questionnaire** - A list of questions about a particular topic. - Structured - Unstructured - **Relationship of the Review of Related Literature with the Questionnaire** - The review of related literature and studies must have sufficient information and data to enable the researcher to understand thoroughly the variables being investigated. - **Types of questions** - *Recognition type* - Alternative responses are already provided, and the respondents choose among the given choices. - *Completion type* - Respondents fill in the blanks. - *Coding Type* - Numbers are assigned to choices. - *Subjective type* - Respondents give their opinions about an issue of concern. - *Combination type* - Combination of two or more types of questions. - **Scales Commonly Used in the Instrument** - *Likert scale* - Declarative statements that express a viewpoint on a topic, respondents indicate how much they agree or disagree. - *Semantic differential scale* - Respondents rate concepts in a series of bipolar adjectives. # Validity and Reliability of the Instrument - **Validity** - The ability of an instrument to measure what it intends to measure. - **Types of Validity** - **Face validity** - **Content validity** - **Construct validity** - **Criterion-related validity** - **Concurrent** - **Predictive** - **Reliability** - The consistency of results. - **Methods in Establishing Reliability:** - **Test Retest or Stability Test** - **Internal Consistency** - **Split half** - **Kuder-Richardson test** # Planning the Collection of Data - **The People** - Secure approval from proper authorities. - **The Finances** - Plan for expenses. - **The Schedule** - Project time needed to collect data. - **Miscellaneous** - Plan what to wear, how to motivate participants.