Poly Sci 101 Guided Notes Fall 2024 PDF

HOW YOU MIGHT USE THIS GUIDE This guide includes the learning outcomes for each part of the class as well as questions to guide your notes on the content we’re covering. There’s a place under each part for notes on the spark readings, which are most relevant for the team applications. I’ll update i...

HOW YOU MIGHT USE THIS GUIDE This guide includes the learning outcomes for each part of the class as well as questions to guide your notes on the content we’re covering. There’s a place under each part for notes on the spark readings, which are most relevant for the team applications. I’ll update it as we move through the semester. I’ve set this to view-only, so if you’d like to take notes or use the checklists, feel free to make a copy! (“file” -> “make a copy”) You can jump to a specific part using the document outline (on the left of the screen) and expand or collapse each part’s content (click the “>” to the left of the section below). Part 1: foundations (W1-3) LEARNING OUTCOMES Discuss common definitions and measurements of “democracy” Explain the main debates and compromises that shaped the Constitution Assess what makes constitutional change more or less likely Contrast features of the U.S. Constitution with those in other advanced democracies Evaluate the role that actors’ preferences play in political outcomes, such as constitutional design What does “democracy” mean to you? Democracy means a system of government where power is vested in the people, who rule either directly or through freely elected representatives. What commonalities do you notice in the definitions of democracy we’ve introduced? Commonalities include the emphasis on popular sovereignty, political equality, and the protection of individual rights. How do political scientists approach the “democracy or republic” debate? Political scientists often highlight that a republic is a form of democracy where elected representatives govern, emphasizing the rule of law and the protection of minority rights. How might we measure the level of democracy in a country? We can measure democracy through indices like the Democracy Index, which assess factors such as electoral processes, civil liberties, political participation, and functioning of government. Is democracy a “good” thing, in others’ opinions and in your own? Opinions vary, but many argue democracy is good because it promotes freedom, equality, and accountability, though it can also face challenges like populism and inefficiency. In the past, democracy wasn't seen as the good thing it's seen as now because of skepticism. This is a normative question because it deals with our judgements rather than actual facts. What’s the difference between “empirical” and “normative”? Empirical refers to what is observable and measurable ( so facts) , while normative involves value judgments about what ought to be. Why were the framers concerned about giving the public too much of a say? What did they do as a result? The framers feared mob rule and instability, so they implemented checks and balances, and indirect election methods like the Electoral College. The framers felt that the public was easily influenced and not sensible to choose the important positions ( those being the president and members of the senate), and that they would be attracted to big personalities instead. As can be seen in Fed 63, the indirect elections were not accidental and were in fact the solutions for both the senate and presidency. What is a constitution? A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. How can the ideas of actors, rules, and preferences help us make sense of politics? These ideas help analyze how individuals and groups (actors) interact within institutional frameworks (rules) to pursue their interests (preferences). Everyone has different preferences so thinking about what they want to achieve in the first place is useful to understand outcomes. If they are in groups, their preferences may change because they have to make compromises. An example can be seen with the framers and the situation with slavery, as some did not want to support slavery but still sided to not maintain protections for slave states. What makes a country federal? How is this different from a unitary system? A federal system divides power between national and regional governments, whereas a unitary system centralizes power in a single national government. Yes both are about transfers of power from the central government to the state, local, regional, etc governments but they exist in different systems. A federal country transfers power from the central government to the federal subunits through a process called federalism. A unitary country transfers power from the central government to the subunits through a process called devolution. Federal and unitary countries are not the same- in a unitary system the balance of power between the national and central subnational government can be changed without the consent of both sides. In a federal system that balance of power requires both sides consent. How are confederations distinct from both federal & unitary systems? Confederations are loose associations of sovereign states with limited central authority, unlike the stronger central governments in federal and unitary systems. How much power did the framers give to the federal government, and why? The framers gave significant but limited powers to the federal government to ensure national unity while protecting states’ rights. This is seen with the balance of power between the three branches, the president, congress, and the supreme court. The framers implemented the duties of each branch and outlined their responsibilities. For example, Congress initiates laws which are true in most parliamentary systems, while the Supreme Court interprets the law and rules on how a law should be applied. What were the main debates about the Senate? How were they resolved, and why? Debates centered on representation; they were resolved by creating a Senate with equal representation for states to balance the House’s population-based representation. What role did slavery / slave states play in the agreements in the Constitution? Slavery was a contentious issue, leading to compromises like the Three-Fifths Compromise to balance power between slave and free states. What sort of executive did the framers want to have, and why? The framers wanted a strong but limited executive to ensure effective governance while preventing tyranny. How did (recent) history affect the decisions about the Constitution? Recent history, including the failures of the Articles of Confederation, influenced the framers to create a stronger federal government. How did (recent) history play a role in the creation of other countries’ constitutions? Other countries often drew on their own historical experiences and the successes and failures of other nations when drafting their constitutions. What are rights & liberties? Rights and liberties are fundamental freedoms and protections guaranteed to individuals, often enshrined in a constitution. What debates did the framers have about including rights & liberties in the Constitution? How were they resolved? There was debate over the necessity of a Bill of Rights; it was resolved by adding the first ten amendments to ensure protection of individual freedoms. What’s required to amend the Constitution? Amending the Constitution requires a proposal by two-thirds of both houses of Congress or a constitutional convention, and ratification by three-fourths of the states. Is the U.S. Constitution difficult to change, in your opinion? Why or why not? Yes, it is difficult to change due to the rigorous amendment process designed to ensure stability and broad consensus. How does the process of amendment compare to other countries? The U.S. process is generally more stringent compared to many other democracies, which often have simpler or more flexible amendment procedures. What arguments have people made about why the U.S. Constitution changes less often than other constitutions? Arguments include the difficulty of the amendment process and the broad, adaptable language of the Constitution. What’s needed to add a state to the U.S.? How has this worked in the past? Adding a state requires congressional approval and the president’s signature; historically, territories have applied for statehood and met certain criteria. How might a state leave the U.S.? There is no legal process for a state to secede; the issue was settled by the Civil War and Supreme Court rulings. What lessons might we take from other countries? Lessons include the importance of clear legal frameworks and the potential benefits and challenges of different governance structures. Spark readings: Why do people make the case for and against statehood for D.C. and for Puerto Rico? Arguments for statehood include representation and equality; arguments against often cite political and logistical concerns. Part 2: institutions (W4-5) LEARNING OUTCOMES Describe the powers (and limits thereof) of the three federal U.S. branches of government Explain what the framers intended for these branches and how things have evolved Explain how the branches interact with each other Evaluate how the Supreme Court has shaped American politics Contrast the U.S. national branches with those in other advanced democracies Assess what might happen if the branches were designed differently Evaluate causal claims about American politics we see in the real world (e.g. in the news) What are the three branches of government and how are they distinct from each other? The legislative branch makes laws, the executive enforces them, and the judicial interprets them, with checks and balances to prevent abuse of power. What’s the difference between a head of state and a head of government? The head of state represents the nation symbolically, while the head of government oversees the executive branch and policy implementation. What does the Constitution say about who is eligible to be president? Why did the framers decide on these rules? The president must be a natural-born citizen, at least 35 years old, and a resident for 14 years; these rules aimed to ensure loyalty and maturity. What happens if the president is unable to serve? The vice president assumes the presidency, followed by a line of succession established by law. How long can someone serve as president, and how has this changed over time? A president can serve two four-year terms, a limit established by the 22nd Amendment after Franklin D. Roosevelt’s four terms. How do these rules about the presidency compare to other advanced democracies’ rules for executives? Other democracies may have different term limits, eligibility criteria, and methods of election, reflecting their unique political systems. What enumerated powers does the U.S. president have? Enumerated powers include vetoing legislation, commanding the military, and conducting foreign policy. In what ways did the framers limit the president’s powers? The framers limited presidential powers through checks and balances, requiring congressional approval for many actions. How (and why) has the president gained more powers over time? Presidential powers have expanded through executive orders, national emergencies, and evolving interpretations of constitutional authority. How do presidents use executive orders, and what are they? Executive orders are directives issued by the president to manage operations of the federal government, often used to implement policy quickly. What’s the difference between direct and indirect elections? Direct elections involve voters choosing candidates directly, while indirect elections involve an intermediary body, like the Electoral College. How are presidents different from prime ministers? Presidents are typically elected separately from the legislature and have fixed terms, while prime ministers are usually chosen by the legislature and can be removed by a vote of no confidence. How do we know if a country has a presidential, parliamentary, or semi-presidential executive? A presidential system has a separately elected president, a parliamentary system has a prime minister chosen by the legislature, and a semi-presidential system combines elements of both. What similarities and differences can we see in these examples of executives? Similarities include the role of leading the executive branch; differences lie in how they are elected, their powers, and their relationship with the legislature. Why might people prefer presidential or parliamentary systems to the other? Preferences may depend on the desire for clear separation of powers (presidential) or more integrated and potentially stable governance (parliamentary). What does the Constitution say about how Congress will be structured? The Constitution establishes a bicameral legislature with the House of Representatives based on population and the Senate providing equal representation for each state. How might we think about the idea of “representation”? Why does representation matter in a (representative) democracy? Representation ensures that diverse interests and populations have a voice in government, which is crucial for legitimacy and accountability in a democracy. How would you explain the process of House seat apportionment? House seats are apportioned based on population data from the census, with each state receiving a number of seats proportional to its population. What concerns have some people raised about apportionment? Concerns include potential underrepresentation of certain populations and the political manipulation of district boundaries (gerrymandering). What powers does the U.S. Congress have? Congress has enumerated powers like making laws, taxing, declaring war, and regulating commerce, as well as implied powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause. How are enumerated and implied powers different? Enumerated powers are explicitly listed in the Constitution, while implied powers are not explicitly stated but are necessary to execute the enumerated powers. How do these powers compare to the powers of legislatures in other democracies? Other democracies may have similar legislative powers, but the balance of power between branches and the specifics of legislative authority can vary widely. What is the filibuster? How has it evolved, and what impact has it had on legislation? The filibuster is a Senate procedure to extend debate and delay or block voting on a bill; it has evolved to require a supermajority to end debate, impacting the passage of legislation. What patterns can we see in democracies, e.g. whether legislatures are unicameral or bicameral? Many democracies have bicameral legislatures to balance representation, though some have unicameral systems for simplicity and efficiency What role do upper houses play in other countries, even if they’re not as powerful as a lower house? Upper houses often serve as a revising chamber, providing additional scrutiny and representing regional or other interests. Notes on other countries’ legislatures: What does the Constitution say (or not say) about how the Supreme Court will operate? The Constitution establishes the Supreme Court but leaves many details about its operation and structure to be determined by Congress. What is judicial review? How was it established in the U.S.? Judicial review is the power of courts to declare laws unconstitutional; it was established in the U.S. by the landmark case Marbury v. Madison. What advantages & disadvantages might judicial review present? Advantages include protecting constitutional rights and limiting government power; disadvantages include potential judicial overreach and lack of democratic accountability. How do high courts in other countries compare to the Supreme Court? High courts in other countries may have similar roles in interpreting the law but can differ in structure, appointment processes, and scope of authority. Why does trust in the Supreme Court matter? Trust in the Supreme Court is crucial for its legitimacy and the public’s acceptance of its decisions. How has the Court interpreted rights and liberties over time? Where do things stand today? The Court’s interpretations have evolved, expanding and sometimes contracting rights and liberties based on changing societal values and legal precedents. 1st Amendment: Protects freedoms of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition. 2nd Amendment: Protects the right to keep and bear arms. 14th Amendment: Guarantees equal protection under the law and due process to all citizens. Spark readings: What arguments do people make for and against reforms for the Senate and for the Supreme Court? Arguments for Senate reform often focus on issues like equal representation, suggesting that the current system gives disproportionate power to smaller states. Proposals include changing the way senators are elected or adjusting the number of senators per state to better reflect population sizes1. Arguments against Senate reform emphasize the importance of maintaining the balance of power between states, as intended by the framers, to protect smaller states’ interests and prevent dominance by more populous states1. Arguments for Supreme Court reform include concerns about the Court’s alignment with public opinion, the lifetime tenure of justices, and the politicization of the confirmation process. Proposals range from adding more justices (court-packing) to implementing term limits23. Arguments against Supreme Court reform caution that changes could undermine the Court’s independence and lead to further politicization. Opponents argue that the current system provides stability and that reforms might be driven by short-term political gains23. Part 3: parties (W6-7) LEARNING OUTCOMES Describe the origins and impacts of the two-party system Explain how and why the Republican and Democratic parties have evolved Evaluate the impacts of party affiliation in the U.S.  Contrast parties in the U.S. with those in other advanced democracies Assess what might happen if the party system / structure in the U.S. were different Evaluate real-world claims and data about American politics What are political parties and why did they emerge? Political parties are organized groups of people with similar political aims and opinions, seeking to influence public policy by getting their candidates elected. They emerged to structure political debate and competition, and to organize voters and candidates. Party history: What’s led to party split / disappearance / emergence throughout history? Party splits, disappearances, and emergences have been driven by major social, economic, and political changes, such as immigration, civil rights movements, and economic crises How have the Democrats and Republicans changed over time, and why? The Democrats and Republicans have switched platforms over time, with Democrats evolving from a party supporting limited government to one advocating for social welfare, and Republicans shifting from supporting strong federal power to favoring limited government Around which issues / interests have the various parties coalesced and divided? Parties have coalesced and divided around issues like economic policy, civil rights, immigration, and social welfare How similar are parties in the U.S. to parties in other advanced democracies? U.S. parties are less ideologically cohesive and more candidate-centered compared to parties in other democracies, which are often more ideologically driven and policy-focused Why does the U.S. only have two parties? The U.S. has a two-party system largely due to its single-member district plurality (first-past-the-post) electoral system, which discourages third-party success How does the first-past-the-post system work, and how does it contribute to a two-party system? In a first-past-the-post system, the candidate with the most votes in a district wins. This system tends to favor larger parties and marginalize smaller ones, leading to a two-party system What sets the U.S. apart from countries that also use FPTP but have more parties? In a first-past-the-post system, the candidate with the most votes in a district wins. This system tends to favor larger parties and marginalize smaller ones, leading to a two-party system How successful (or not) have third parties been in the U.S.? Unlike the U.S., countries like the UK and Canada have regional parties and different political cultures that support multiparty competition despite using FPTP What is party identification? How is it different from ideology? Third parties have had limited success in the U.S., rarely winning significant offices or influencing major policy changes. How independent are independent voters, in practice? Many independent voters lean towards one of the two major parties and often vote consistently with that party, despite identifying as independents What is polarization? Polarization refers to the division of opinions into two distinct and opposing groups, often leading to a lack of compromise and increased political tension What evidence do we have for ideological & affective polarization? Evidence includes increased partisan voting patterns, more extreme party platforms, and heightened negative feelings towards the opposing party What contributes to polarization? What is gerrymandering? Gerrymandering is the practice of drawing electoral district boundaries to give one party an unfair advantage over others How has the Supreme Court ruled on gerrymandering? The Supreme Court has ruled that partisan gerrymandering is a political question beyond the reach of federal courts, but racial gerrymandering can be challenged Spark readings: What arguments do people make about gerrymandering? Arguments against gerrymandering include its undermining of democratic principles and voter representation, while some defend it as a traditional part of political strategy How can we see the strength of partisanship in the U.S.? The strength of partisanship is evident in consistent party-line voting, strong party loyalty, and polarized political discourse How can we see the weakness of parties in the U.S.? Weaknesses include internal divisions, the influence of independent voters, and the rise of candidate-centered campaigns How do partisanship & party strength compare to other advanced democracies? U.S. partisanship is often more polarized and less ideologically cohesive compared to other democracies, where parties may have clearer ideological identities and stronger internal discipline. Part 4: elections (W9-11) LEARNING OUTCOMES Explain how candidates are elected in the U.S. Describe the ways in which elections vary across the U.S. Evaluate the impact of election rules on American politics Compare elections in the U.S. to elections in other advanced democracies Assess what might happen if elections in the U.S. were run differently Explain what we see in polling data and connect these data to class content What are electoral systems? What makes majoritarian & proportional representation systems different? Electoral systems are methods used to calculate the number of elected positions in government that individuals or parties are awarded after elections. Majoritarian systems, like First-Past-the-Post (FPTP), typically result in a single winner per district and often benefit larger parties, leading to disproportionate representation. Proportional representation (PR) systems aim to allocate seats in proportion to the number of votes each party receives, ensuring fairer representation for smaller parties and minority groups What does the Constitution say (and not say) about how Congressional elections should work? The U.S. The Constitution grants states the power to determine the "Times, Places, and Manner" of congressional elections, but allows Congress to alter these regulations. It mandates direct elections for House members but originally required state legislatures to elect Senators, a process changed by the 17th Amendment to direct elections. The Constitution does not specify detailed procedures for conducting these elections, leaving many aspects to state discretion. Recap: How are direct and indirect elections distinct? Direct elections involve voters casting ballots directly for their preferred candidates, as seen in U.S. presidential and congressional elections. Indirect elections involve voters electing representatives who then choose the officeholders, such as the Electoral College system for U.S. presidential elections What is a district? What’s the difference between single-member districts (SMD) and multi-member districts (MMD)? A district is a geographical area represented by elected officials. In single-member districts (SMD), one representative is elected per district, promoting a strong link between constituents and their representative. Multi-member districts (MMD) elect multiple representatives, which can enhance proportional representation but may weaken the direct connection between voters and their representatives What is district magnitude? District magnitude refers to the number of legislative seats assigned to a district. Higher district magnitudes generally lead to more proportional representation, as more seats allow for a closer match between the percentage of votes received and the number of seats allocated How do these electoral systems work? What do you see as advantages and disadvantages? Two-round: In a two-round system, if no candidate achieves a majority in the first round, a second round is held between the top candidates. This ensures the winner has broad support but can be costly and time-consuming Alternative vote (AV): (note that this is the correct name to use) In AV, voters rank candidates by preference. If no candidate wins a majority, the least popular candidates are eliminated, and their votes are redistributed until a candidate achieves a majority. This system reduces the need for tactical voting and ensures majority support but can be complex to administer What arguments do politicians make for / against an AV system? Proponents argue AV ensures majority support and reduces negative campaigning, as candidates seek second-preference votes. Critics claim it is not truly proportional and can be more complex and costly to implement List proportional representation (list PR): In list PR, parties present lists of candidates, and seats are allocated based on the proportion of votes each party receives. This system ensures proportional representation and encourages multi-party systems but can lead to fragmented parliaments and coalition governments Single transferable vote (STV): STV allows voters to rank candidates in multi-member districts. Votes are transferred based on preferences until all seats are filled. This system promotes proportional representation and voter choice but can be complex to count and understand Which methods of electing members of Congress would require a change to federal law, and which could states enact now if they wished? Changing the method of electing members of Congress, such as adopting proportional representation, would require federal legislation. However, states have the authority to implement changes like ranked-choice voting for their own elections without federal approval What would it mean to have more parties in the legislature? Having more parties in the legislature could lead to a broader representation of views and interests, potentially resulting in more coalition governments. This can enhance democratic representation but may also lead to less stable governments and more complex policy negotiations. What is an electoral college, and what is the Electoral College? An electoral college is a body of representatives chosen to elect a leader, such as the U.S. Electoral College, which elects the President and Vice President. The U.S. Electoral College consists of electors from each state, proportional to its congressional representation How does the Electoral College work? Voters in each state cast ballots for electors pledged to a candidate. The candidate who wins the majority of votes in a state typically receives all its electoral votes. A candidate needs at least 270 electoral votes to win the presidency. If no candidate achieves a majority, the House of Representatives elects the President What does someone need to win to become president? What if no one has a majority? A candidate needs 270 electoral votes to win the presidency. If no candidate has a majority, the House of Representatives elects the President from the top three candidates, with each state delegation having one vote Why did the framers create the Electoral College? The framers created the Electoral College as a compromise between electing the President by Congress and by popular vote. It was designed to balance the influence of small and large states and to provide a buffer against direct popular election What did the framers expect about electors? How are electors chosen, in practice? The framers expect electors to be independent decision-makers, but in practice, electors are typically chosen by political parties and are pledged to support their party's candidate Direct vs. indirect elections: Direct elections involve voters directly choosing their representatives, while indirect elections involve voters selecting representatives who then choose the officeholders What does it mean if someone is a “faithless elector”? How impactful might they be? A "faithless elector" is an elector who does not vote for the candidate they pledged to support. While rare, faithless electors can potentially impact the outcome of a close election, but most states have laws to penalize or replace them. What advantages & disadvantages do you see to the Electoral College? Advantages include balancing the influence of small and large states and promoting a federalist system. Disadvantages include the possibility of a candidate winning the presidency without the popular vote and the focus on swing states What advantages & disadvantages do you see to these options, below? What options do states have if they want to change how they award electors? States can adopt the district method, like Maine and Nebraska, or join the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, which pledges electors to the national popular vote winner What options would states have if the Electoral College were abolished? If the Electoral College were abolished, states would likely adopt a national popular vote system, where the candidate with the most votes nationwide wins What would be required to abolish the Electoral College, and how likely is that? Abolishing the Electoral College would require a constitutional amendment, which is a challenging process requiring approval by two-thirds of both houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states How does someone become the Democratic or Republican nominee for president? Candidates become nominees through a series of primary elections and caucuses in each state, where party members vote for their preferred candidate. The candidate with the most delegates at the party's national convention becomes the nominee What are primaries & caucuses? How are they different? Primaries are state-level elections where party members vote for their preferred candidate. Caucuses are local gatherings where party members discuss and vote on candidates. Primaries are more straightforward and have higher participation, while caucuses involve more discussion and deliberation Why did parties give up (some) control to voters? What impact has this lack of control of nominations had on who wins? Parties gave up control to voters to democratize the nomination process and increase voter engagement. This shift has led to more diverse candidates and sometimes less predictable outcomes What other rules may affect who wins a nomination, e.g. the order of primaries? The order of primaries, particularly early ones like Iowa and New Hampshire, can significantly impact momentum and media coverage, influencing subsequent primaries and caucuses Spark readings: What arguments do people make about the presidential nomination process? Arguments about the nomination process include debates over its fairness, transparency, and the influence of money and media. Some advocate for reforms to make the process more inclusive and representative How has the franchise expanded over time? How many people turn out to vote? The franchise has expanded through amendments and legislation, such as the 15th, 19th, and 26th Amendments, granting voting rights to African Americans, women, and 18-year-olds. Voter turnout varies, with higher participation in presidential elections compared to midterms Interlude: How might you learn more about elections / feel comfortable voting, if you don’t already? To learn more about elections, you can attend local candidate forums, read non-partisan voter guides, and participate in community discussions. Volunteering as a poll worker or joining civic organizations can also increase your comfort with voting What did the Voting Rights Act do to protect voters, and how has the Supreme Court changed this? The Voting Rights Act of 1965 aimed to eliminate racial discrimination in voting by prohibiting practices like literacy tests and poll taxes, and by requiring jurisdictions with histories of discrimination to obtain federal approval before changing voting laws (a process known as "preclearance"). However, the Supreme Court's 2013 decision in Shelby County v. Holder significantly weakened the Act by striking down the formula used to determine which jurisdictions require preclearance. This has led to the implementation of new voting restrictions in several states. What do we know about other types of rules – voter ID laws, voting by mail and the like – and their effect on elections? Voter ID laws require voters to present identification at the polls, which supporters argue prevents fraud, while opponents claim they disproportionately affect minorities and low-income voters. Voting by mail has been shown to increase voter turnout, particularly among those who might find it difficult to vote in person. Studies suggest that while voter ID laws have a minimal impact on overall turnout, they can disenfranchise specific groups. Notes on polling: What should we look for when we see polling data? When evaluating polling data, consider the sample size, margin of error, and how representative the sample is of the population. Look for the methodology used, such as whether the poll was conducted via phone, online, or in person, and whether it was weighted to reflect the demographics of the population. What does it mean to “weight” a poll? Weighting a poll involves adjusting the results to account for underrepresented or overrepresented groups within the sample. This ensures that the poll more accurately reflects the demographics of the target population. For example, if a poll has too few young respondents, their responses might be given more weight to balance the sample. What have we learned (or not learned) about polling after 2016 and 2020? Post-2016 and 2020, pollsters have made adjustments such as weighting by education level to better capture voter preferences. Despite these changes, challenges remain, including low response rates and accurately predicting turnout. The 2016 and 2020 elections highlighted the need for continuous methodological improvements How are polls and win probabilities different? Polls provide a snapshot of current voter preferences, typically expressed as percentages. Win probabilities, on the other hand, use statistical models to predict the likelihood of a candidate winning based on polling data and other factors. A small change in polling percentages can result in a significant shift in win probabilities due to the models' sensitivity to new information Part 5: policy (W12-13) LEARNING OUTCOMES Explain how we (try to) know what the public wants  Evaluate public opinion data and connect these data to class content Explain how direct democracy works in the U.S. Assess the representativeness of policy in the U.S. Evaluate what might happen if policy processes in the U.S. were different, including comparing the U.S. to other advanced democracies Your turn: Do you think policies should reflect public opinion? Why or why not? Policies should ideally reflect public opinion to ensure that the government remains responsive and accountable to the people it serves. This alignment can enhance democratic legitimacy and public trust. However, there are instances where public opinion may be misinformed or short-sighted, and policymakers must balance popular demands with expert advice and long-term considerations. What is public “opinion”? What types of opinions might we actually be measuring? Public opinion refers to the collective preferences and attitudes of the public regarding political issues, policies, and leaders. It can be measured through surveys and polls, capturing opinions on specific issues, general political attitudes, and perceptions of political figures. These measurements can include both informed opinions and those based on limited knowledge. What challenges do we face in measuring opinion and political knowledge? Challenges in measuring public opinion include sampling errors, question wording effects, and respondents' lack of knowledge or interest in the issues. Additionally, social desirability bias can lead individuals to provide answers they believe are more socially acceptable rather than their true opinions. What is a welfare state, and what makes up the U.S. welfare state? A welfare state is a government system that provides social security and public services to ensure the economic and social well-being of its citizens. The U.S. welfare state includes programs like Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, unemployment insurance, and various forms of public assistance. How does the public feel about the welfare state? Public opinion on the welfare state in the U.S. is mixed. While there is broad support for programs like Social Security and Medicare, opinions on welfare and public assistance programs can be more polarized, often influenced by perceptions of fairness and the role of government. What does it mean when we describe the welfare state as “submerged,” and why might that matter? Describing the welfare state as "submerged" refers to the idea that many welfare benefits in the U.S. are delivered through tax breaks and subsidies rather than direct spending. This can make the welfare state less visible to the public, potentially reducing awareness and support for these programs. What factors tend to set U.S. policies apart from those in other advanced democracies? U.S. policies often emphasize individualism and limited government intervention compared to other advanced democracies, which may prioritize collective welfare and state involvement. This difference is reflected in areas like healthcare, social services, and labor protections. What patterns do we see in campaign finance laws and Court rulings in the U.S.? U.S. campaign finance laws have evolved significantly, with key Supreme Court rulings like Citizens United v. FEC allowing unlimited independent political expenditures by corporations and unions. These changes have led to the rise of super PACs and increased the influence of money in politics. What explains why the U.S. doesn’t have universal health care? The absence of universal health care in the U.S. can be attributed to cultural values emphasizing individualism, the influence of powerful interest groups like the insurance and pharmaceutical industries, and the complexity of enacting large-scale entitlement programs in the American political system. Who are the important stakeholders, and what impact have they had? Important stakeholders in the U.S. healthcare debate include insurance companies, pharmaceutical firms, healthcare providers, and advocacy groups. These stakeholders have significant influence through lobbying and campaign contributions, often shaping policy outcomes to protect their interests. Recap: What does it mean if a country is federal, or if it’s unitary? In a federal system, power is divided between a central government and regional governments, each with its own areas of authority. In a unitary system, all governmental power is centralized in a single national government. What does it mean for federal law to have supremacy over state law? The Supremacy Clause of the U.S. Constitution establishes that federal law takes precedence over state laws. When there is a conflict between federal and state law, federal law prevails. What determines whether the federal or state governments have responsibility for policy? The division of responsibilities between federal and state governments is determined by the Constitution, which grants certain powers to the federal government while reserving others to the states. This division can also be influenced by judicial interpretations and legislative actions. What types of state-by-state variations do we see in policies? State-by-state variations can be seen in areas like healthcare, education, taxation, and criminal justice. These differences reflect the diverse political cultures and priorities of each state. How well do those policies map onto public opinion, in your view? State policies often reflect the public opinion within those states, but there can be discrepancies due to political, economic, and institutional factors. For example, states with more progressive populations may have more expansive social policies, while conservative states may prioritize limited government intervention. How might the federal government encourage states to follow their lead on policies? The federal government can encourage states to adopt certain policies through incentives like grants, funding, and regulatory flexibility. It can also use mandates and preemption to require states to comply with federal standards. Recap: What is direct democracy, vs. representative democracy? In a direct democracy, citizens vote directly on laws and policies. In a representative democracy, citizens elect representatives who make decisions on their behalf. What are the three types of direct democracy we might see? The three types of direct democracy are initiatives, referendums, and recalls. Initiatives allow citizens to propose and vote on laws, referendums let citizens approve or reject laws passed by the legislature, and recalls enable voters to remove elected officials from office. Why might someone like or dislike direct democracy? Supporters of direct democracy argue it enhances citizen participation and ensures government accountability. Critics contend it can lead to poorly informed decision-making and be influenced by special interests. How does direct democracy work in California? (don’t worry about memorizing specific percents; focus on the general points) In California, direct democracy allows citizens to propose initiatives and referendums, which can be placed on the ballot if they gather enough signatures. Recalls are also used to remove elected officials before their terms end. What lessons might we take from recalls in California? Recalls in California demonstrate the power of voters to hold officials accountable but can also lead to political instability and frequent elections. Since 1913, there have been 181 recall attempts of state elected officials, with six resulting in the official being removed. High-profile recalls, such as those of Governor Gray Davis in 2003 and the attempted recall of Governor Gavin Newsom in 2021, highlight how recalls can be driven by political dissatisfaction and crises. These recalls show that while the process empowers voters, it can also be used as a political tool, sometimes leading to significant costs and disruptions. The frequent use of recalls may reflect deeper issues within the political system, such as polarization and the influence of special interest groups. Additionally, the success of a recall often depends on the political climate and the incumbent's ability to maintain public support and navigate crises effectively What lessons might we take from initiatives in California? Initiatives in California show the potential for citizens to directly influence policy but also highlight challenges like the influence of money in campaigns and the complexity of issues being decided by voters. Spark readings: What arguments do people make about states' rights and the policy impacts of federalism? Arguments about states' rights often focus on the balance of power between state and federal governments, with proponents advocating for state autonomy and opponents emphasizing the need for national standards. The policy impacts of federalism include variations in policy implementation and the ability of states to serve as "laboratories of democracy".