Meat and Meat Products PDF

Meat and Meat Products, Eggs and Legumes Nuts and Oilseeds  Meat and Meat Products Cattle (Beef) Sheep (Lamb/Mutton) Pig (Pork) Poultry (Chicken, Rooster, Duck, Goose, Turkey) Edible Parts of Seafood (Fish, Mussels, Oysters)  Meat contains protein, fat, mi...

Meat and Meat Products, Eggs and Legumes Nuts and Oilseeds  Meat and Meat Products Cattle (Beef) Sheep (Lamb/Mutton) Pig (Pork) Poultry (Chicken, Rooster, Duck, Goose, Turkey) Edible Parts of Seafood (Fish, Mussels, Oysters)  Meat contains protein, fat, minerals, and vitamins. The Importance It is one of our most important protein sources due of Meat and to its high-quality protein content and high protein ratio. Meat Products Consumption (Red Meat, The proportion of protein and fat in meat varies depending on whether the meat is lean or fatty. Poultry, Fish, and Seafood) Fatty meats have higher saturated fatty acid and cholesterol content  Fish, in particular, are a significant source of omega-3 fatty acids. The Importance Due to being a high-quality protein source, meat of Meat and should be included in the diet, especially during periods of increased protein requirements and Meat Products rapid growth, such as infancy and childhood. Consumption Meats are poor in vitamin C, vitamin E, and (Red Meat, calcium. Poultry, Fish, and They are rich in vitamin B12, iron, and zinc Seafood) The iron found in meat is highly bioavailable, making it significant in preventing iron deficiency anemia  The Importance of Since fatty meats have higher saturated fatty acids and Meat and Meat cholesterol, individuals with conditions such as coronary Products artery disease, diabetes, or hypertension should prefer Consumption lean red meat, skinless white meat (chicken, turkey), and (Red Meat, fish under the supervision of a dietitian. Poultry, Fish, and Seafood)  The Fish meat contains protein equivalent to red meat and poultry such as chicken and turkey. Importance of Additionally, marine fish are a good source of iodine. Meat and Meat Fatty fish, in particular, are rich in n-3 (omega-3) fatty Products acids, and it is recommended to consume fish at least Consumption twice a week for a healthy diet. (Red Meat, Adequate dietary intake of n-3 fatty acids is crucial for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases and for brain Poultry, Fish, development in children. and Seafood)  Various meat products such as sausage, salami, hot dogs, pastrami, and preserved meat are made through different processes. The In particular, chemicals like nitrites and nitrates are used in the Importance of production of salami and sausages to prevent color changes and Meat and Meat inhibit microbial growth. Products The harmful substances that these chemicals might produce in the Consumption body can be neutralized or eliminated with antioxidants such as (Red Meat, vitamins C and E. Poultry, Fish, When consuming such products, it is important to include fruits and and Seafood) vegetables rich in vitamins C and E in the diet. Additionally, since processed products have a high saturated fat content, their consumption should be limited.  Meat Consumption Denmark 60 kg/year United States: 82 kg/year % of individuals who do not consume red meat: 20% in our country is % of individuals who consume chicken once or 19 kg (52 twice a week: 42.9% g/day). % of individuals who do not consume fish: 39% Figure 4.6.7. Frequency of Red Meat Consumption Among Adults in One Month (%) In the 2010 TBSA study, the frequency of individuals who consumed red meat every day or more than once a day in the past month was very low, at 6.4%. It was determined that 56.9% of adults consumed red meat only 1-2 times per month or never. 2% 9% 5-6 3-4 28% 16% 20% 4% 1-2 times/week times/week Those Who Those Who Everyday times/week Consume Every Consume 15 Days 1/month Turkey Nutrition and Health Survey 2010  ü As connective tissue increases, meat toughness increases. Structure of Meat ü The connective tissue is higher in parts of the animal that are highly active. Muscle tissue Connective tissue - Collagen - Elastin ü Collagen hydrolyzes into gelatin at 60- 80°C. ü Elastin does not hydrolyze. Meat - Protein Actomyosin Actin is important for muscle Myosin Actomyosin movement. During Muscle Movement: Actomyosin + ATP ADP + P Mg-K During Muscle Relaxation: Kreatin- P → ATP + Kreatin Myogen (play a role in muscle contraction and structure. Albumin (maintaining osmotic pressure ) Myoglobin: Gives red meat its characteristic red color.  (Rigor Mortis) After slaughter, muscle movements continue. However, oxygen intake is cut off. The continuation of metabolism in an oxygen-deprived environment leads to the formation of lactic acid. The muscle remaining active causes it to harden. As the meat rests, the acids formed through metabolism increase the meat's ability to retain water. With the action of enzymes, the hardness disappears.  (Rigor Mortis) Resolution Time Depending on the type of animal and the temperature at which the meat is stored: In poultry, rigor mortis disappears within 1 hour. In large animals (cattle, sheep), rigor mortis resolves in 10 days at 0°C and in 3 days at 15°C. Animals with less fat lose rigidity faster.  MEAT Saturated fats (palmitic, stearic fatty acids) Minerals and some organic components Small molecules containing creatine and amino acid nitrogen Freshly slaughtered animal meat > Glycogen → ç While the meat is resting:  Factors Affecting the Flavor of Meat: 1. Meat Tenderness Depends on the animal's species, age (as age ↑, fat content ↓), diet, amount of connective tissue, and nutritional condition. Meat from poorly fed and/or highly active animals tends to be tough. As fat content ↑, tenderness ↑. Milk-fed lamb has a higher water content and is not as flavorful as meat from animals slaughtered at the optimal age. Factors Affecting the Flavor of Meat: 2. The cooking method The cooking method is applied depending on the type of meat and its connective tissue content.. heat Water Raw meat proteins → Proteins denature → loss (colloid sol ) solidify. If water loss is excessive, the meat becomes dry, negatively affecting its flavor. Increased connective tissue ↑ becomes tough when cooked with dry heat. When cooked as ground meat and with moist heat, collagen is hydrolyzed, making the meat tender.  Changes in Meat During Cooking 1. Proteins coagulate, and water is lost. 2. In moist heat, the connective tissue protein collagen is hydrolyzed, which helps tenderize the meat. 3. Myoglobin → Metmyoglobin (denaturation), resulting in a brown color. 4. Nitrogenous molecules (amines, hydrogen sulfate, and organic acids) are formed, enhancing flavor. 5. Melted fats + gelatin = forms a fatty gel when cooled.  Changes in Meat During Cooking 6. Some vitamin loss occurs in meat cooked at high temperatures.In grilled meats, the heat and water loss result in a reduction of folic acid, B1, and B12 vitamins. 7. In baking, grilling, and frying, the loss of B vitamins depends on the temperature and duration, ranging from 0% to 40% (average: 20%). 8. In moist cooking, if the cooking water is not used, the loss can reach 70% (Thiamine is lost the most). 9. Cooking with minimal water and retaining the cooking liquid prevents any loss.  Changes in Meat During Cooking Nitrosamines, which exhibit carcinogenic activity, are formed in partially charred meat cooked at very high temperatures (deep frying in hot oil) or in close contact with fire (grilling).  Meat Cooking Methods 1. Dry Heat Cooking 2. Moist Heat Cooking 3. Frying in Oil  Meat Cooking Methods 1. Dry Heat Cooking: Grilling, oven roasting, cooking in oil-free or lightly oiled heavy-bottomed pans. In meats with low connective tissue. In meats with high connective tissue, ground meat → meatballs. Very high heat → causes the outer surface proteins to coagulate → prevents heat from reaching the inner part of the meat. Very high heat → leads to surface charring + increased water loss → increased nutrient loss. When grilling, there should be a 10-15 cm distance between the meat and the fire.  Cooking the Inner GRILL Part of Meat When grilling meatballs or pieces of meat, one side is cooked thoroughly before turning to the other side. Very high heat is avoided to prevent the edges from shrinking and becoming tough. Oven - Roasting Moderate heat is used for roasts cooked in the oven. Roasts are not placed in a very hot oven. The fatty side of the meat is positioned on top. The internal temperature of the meat is measured with a thermometer inserted into the center of the roast once the heat has reached the interior. The cooking time for the roast depends on the size of the piece. For example, a 2.5 kg roast cooks in approximately 2.5 hours in a moderately heated oven (150°C).  Meat Cooking Methods 2. Moist Heat Cooking: Kebabs, steaks, and chops are cooked over low heat. Water can be added if needed. Examples include tray-baked chops, oven kebabs, and meatball dishes. Connective tissues ↑ in meats → diced + chunk meats Low heat → Prevents steam loss. Dishes are cooked with a lid on. Boiled meats are cooked with plenty of water. It is considered the healthiest cooking method.  Meat Cooking Methods 3. Frying in Oil: Meatballs If the oil is too hot, the outer surface solidifies suddenly, making it difficult for heat to penetrate the interior. Harmful compounds for health can form due to high temperatures. If the meat has a high connective tissue content, collagen will not hydrolyze, resulting in tough meat. Flavor L  Foods Made from Meat Sausage and Sucuk (Dry Fermented Sausage): Meat → Minced → Salt + Spices added → Stuffed into animal intestines, gelatin, or cellulose casings → Dried. Salami and Pastrami: After partial drying, the meat is seasoned with spices. Cold Cuts: Meat is boiled and cooked, then pressed together with gelatin under pressure to form cold cuts. Kavurma (Braised Meat): Meat is braised as ground meat or in small pieces. It is preserved by sealing it with a layer of fat on top. This is called kavurma.  Health Standards for Meat: Diseases Transmitted from Animals to Humans: Intestinal parasites such as tapeworms Bacterial diseases: Anthrax Glanders It must come from Tuberculosis Salmonella healthy animals. Cattle plague Foot-and-mouth disease Smallpox Mad cow disease (Bovine spongiform encephalopathy) which destroys brain cells  Meat Storage Minced meat should not be kept in the refrigerator for more than 1 day. Whole cuts of meat can be stored for 2-3 days in the refrigerator (if they haven't been stored previously). Meats should be divided into portions suitable for cooking and wrapped in parchment paper before freezing. They can be stored in the freezer at -2°C for 2 weeks, and in deep freezers at -18°C to -32°C for longer periods. Frozen meat should be thawed in the refrigerator. Thawed meat should not be refrozen.  Meat Inspection Marks Edible Edible Low-Quality Edible Meats After Meats to Be Meats Meats Proper Cooking Discarded  Poultry Meats Domestic Fowl (Poultry) Red Meats Fat ↓ Fat ↑ Energy ↓ Energy ↑ Saturated Fat and Cholesterol ↓ Saturated Fat and Cholesterol ↑ Protein ↑ Protein ↓ Iron ↓ Iron ↑ Riboflavin, Niacin, B6, B12 Frequency of Chicken Consumption Among Adults in the Past Month (%) According to TBSA 2010, 6% of adults consumed chicken every day or 5-6 times a week in the last month. Nearly half of the adults (43%) consumed chicken 1-2 times a week. About one-third of adults consumed chicken very rarely (1-2 times per month) or not at all. 3% 17% 10% 3% 43% 17% 5-6 3-4 Those Who 1-2 Everyday times/week times/week Those Who times/week Consume Consume Every 1/month 15 Days  Storage of Poultry Meat At 0°C to 6°C: Can be stored for 1 to 6 days. Immediately After Slaughter: Once cleaned, the meat should be frozen immediately at -32°C. Frozen Storage: Can be stored at -18°C for up to 3 months.  Cooking Poultry Meat As the animal's age increases, meat toughness increases. Young Animals: Best suited for grilling or roasting (covered and with minimal added water). Older Animals: Should be cooked in water to achieve tenderness. The healthiest cooking method is cooking in a covered pot using the meat's natural juices, with no additional water or minimal water.  Seafood Consumption: Annual per capita consumption is 3 kg, comprising 65% fresh and 35% dried, salted, or canned products. Nutritional Value:High-quality protein Rich in vitamins A, K, and B Contains iodine, phosphorus, and zinc (↑) Energy: Fatty fish have higher energy content (↑). Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Contains high levels of omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids (↑). Calcium Intake: Consuming fish with bones increases calcium intake (↑) Health Benefits: Increased fish consumption reduces the risk of coronary heart disease (↓).  Fish Eyes: Bright and clear, free of blemishes. Gills: Reddish-pink in color. Scales and Fins: Firm, intact, and in good condition. Odor: No unpleasant or fishy smell. Press Test: When pressed, the indentation from a finger quickly bounces back.  Fish Storage Short-Term Storage: Store in ice or at temperatures below 0°C (32°F). Long-Term Storage Methods: Freezing: Fresh fish is frozen at -32°C (-25.6°F) and can be stored at -18°C (0°F) for 3-6 months. Salting: Preserves fish by curing it with salt. Canning: Processed and sealed in airtight containers for extended shelf life. Drying: Fish is dried (e.g., as in "çiroz") to remove moisture for preservation. Shelf Life of Salted and Dried Fish: Varies between 6-12 months depending on storage temperature and humidity conditions.  Fish Meal. Fish meal is flour made from fish Fish is processed into meal form in factories. Used to enrich low-quality protein sources. Commonly utilized as animal feed.  Fish Cooking Techniques Low connective tissue in fish: Causes it to break apart easily during cooking. Fatty Fish: Best suited for grilling or steaming in its own juices (e.g., poaching or en papillote). Lean Fish: Ideal for frying. To prevent the fish from falling apart, coat it in flour before placing it in hot oil EGG  Egg Calcium Carbonate eggshell Air Cell in Eggs The air cell forms after the chichen lays the egg. Its size indicates the freshness of the egg. In Our Country Average per capita egg consumption is 4 kg per year. The percentage of people who consume eggs daily is 30%. Egg 11% Shell 58% Egg White 31% Egg Yolk Egg White Proteins: 63% Albumin The remainder consists of mucin, mucoid, and avidin. Egg Yolk Proteins: Mainly vitellin and phosvitin.  Turkish Food Codex Egg Regulation Class A Eggs: Eggs obtained from chickens of the species Gallus gallus var. domesticus, intended for direct human consumption or use in the food industry. These eggs must meet the following quality standards as shelled eggs. 1) Eggshell: The shell must be clean and may have a slightly rough texture. It should be intact, free of cracks, breaks, and have a normal shape. 2) Air Cell:For eggs marketed as "extra fresh," the air cell must not exceed 4 mm.For other eggs, it must not exceed 6 mm and should remain stationary. 3) Egg White: Should be clear, transparent, and jelly-like in consistency, free from foreign matter. Shell eggs that do not meet these quality standards but are suitable for the 4) Egg Yolk:During candling, it should appear as a round shadow in the preparation of egg products are classified center. When the egg is rotated, the yolk should not visibly separate from the as Class B Eggs. center and should not contain foreign matter. 5) Embryo: The egg must not contain a visible embryo. 6) Odor: The egg must not have any foreign or unpleasant smell.  Turkish Food Codex Egg Regulation Weight Tolerance for Class A Eggs 1. For inspections involving 180 or more eggs: The proportion of eggs from one weight class lower than specified must not exceed 5%. Eggs from two or more weight classes lower than specified must not be present. There is no limitation on the number of eggs from higher weight classes. 2. For inspections involving fewer than 180 eggs: The tolerances for weight control are double the limits specified in point 1. 3. Rounding Rule for Calculated Tolerance: If the calculated number of eggs to which tolerances can be applied is not a whole number, the next higher whole number is used. Egg- Protein Eggs contain high-quality protein. Studies conducted on laboratory animals have shown that 100% of egg proteins are converted into body proteins. For this reason, egg proteins are referred to as REFERENCE PROTEINS.  Importance of Egg Consumption Egg fat is composed of: 33% saturated fats 16% polyunsaturated fats The remainder consists of monounsaturated fats. The fat is concentrated in the egg yolk, which has a high cholesterol content. However, it also contains a significant amount of unsaturated fatty acids and lecithin, which reduces its cholesterol-raising effect compared to fatty meats and dairy products.  Importance of Egg Consumption Egg yolk is rich in iron, vitamin A, and B-group vitamins. Due to its high-quality protein, consuming one egg daily is beneficial for infants and children. In cases where dietary protein intake is restricted, such as in kidney and liver failure, eggs are a crucial source of nutrition as they contain exemplary protein.  Importance of Egg Consumption Consuming raw (uncooked) eggs From a food safety perspective, consuming raw (uncooked) eggs is not recommended as they are difficult to digest and the beneficial effects of biotin, a B-group vitamin, cannot be fully utilized by the body. Healthy individuals can consume eggs 3-4 times a week on days when they do not eat meat. Individuals with cardiovascular diseases can consume eggs 1-2 times a week.  Importance of Egg Consumption One egg is equivalent to half a portion of meat and meat products. Consuming eggs together with vegetables and grains minimizes their negative impact on blood cholesterol levels. The lecithin in eggs helps regulate brain functions and supports the protection of the liver.  Importance of Egg Consumption When purchasing eggs, choose those that are clean, with no cracks or breaks, and store them unwashed in the refrigerator. If the egg is old or cooked for too long, a green sulfur (iron-sulfur) ring may form around the yolk. Therefore, it is important to consume fresh eggs and limit the boiling time for hard-boiled eggs to 5-8 minutes after the water starts boiling.  Egg Yolk Color ~ Chicken's Diet The color of the egg yolk is influenced by the diet of the chicken. Yellow Corn Green Grass Barley Commercial Feed  Changes in Stored Eggs Physical Changes Chemical Changes microbiological Viscosity of the egg white pH increases (↑). In dirty eggs, microorganisms decreases. The tertiary structure of proteins gradually penetrate the shell, Water moves from the egg breaks down, releasing hydrogen leading to their multiplication white to the yolk. sulfide (H₂S) → unpleasant odor! inside the egg. The air cell enlarges. Ammonia content increases (↑). Overall, the egg becomes lighter Inorganic phosphate content due to water loss. increases (↑). Turkish Food Codex Egg Regulation Eggs must be stored in clean and dry places, free from foreign odors, and protected from impacts, direct sunlight, and extreme temperature fluctuations throughout all stages, from production to delivery to the consumer. It is not mandatory to refrigerate eggs for the first 18 days after the laying date. However, starting from the 18th day, eggs must be stored at temperatures between (+8)–(+5)°C. Storage areas for Class A eggs should not be artificially cooled below +5°C. , However: During transportation, eggs may be kept at temperatures below +5°C for a maximum of 24 hours. At retail locations, eggs may be stored at temperatures below +5°C for a maximum of 72 hours.  Protein Quality Amino Acid Profile in Foods Digestibility= Refers to the ability of food proteins to be converted into body proteins. Processing methods and storage conditions applied to foods can lead to the breakdown of amino acids in their composition, affecting their digestibility. Reference protein : Human Milk and Eggs High-Quality Proteins: Meat, Fish, Milk, and Dairy Products Low-Quality Proteins: Plant-Based Foods  Ways to Improve Protein Quality - 1 In cereals, the amino acid lysine is limited, but it is abundant in legumes. Bulgur Pilaf + Kidney Beans → Balances the amino acid profile. Cereals (Bread, rice, corn, pasta) + Legumes (Kidney beans, chickpeas, lentils) = HIGH-QUALITY PROTEIN  Ways to Improve Protein Quality - 2 In cereals, the amino acid lysine is limited, but it is abundant in milk. Rice + Milk → Rice Pudding: Balances the amino acid profile. Cereals (Bread, rice, corn, pasta) + Milk and Dairy Products (Milk, yogurt, cheese) = HIGH-QUALITY PROTEIN Denaturations of Proteins Denaturation results: Enzymes lose their activity Proteins' solubility decreases Proteins' functions diminish Digestibility increases  Denaturations of Proteins The solidification and whitening of an egg due to heat Although the denaturation of egg white is irreversible, many other denaturation processes are reversible.  Which eggs are healthy? 1 MİNUTE 3 MİNUTES 5 MİNUTES 7 MİNUTES 9 MİNUTES 11 MİNUTES 13 MİNUTES 15 MİNUTES How long should eggs be cooked? The iron (Fe) in the egg yolk reacts with hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) present in the egg white, forming iron sulfide (FeS).  Egg Freshness Test Determining the Freshness of an Egg Size of the Air Cell Fresh eggs have a small air cell, while older eggs have a larger one. 1-3 days 4-6 days 7-9 days Floating in Saltwater Eggs that float in saltwater are considered stale. Appearance When Cracked When carefully cracked, the yolk 10-12 days 13-15 days 16-18 days should remain intact and centered, surrounded by thick egg white that holds its shape. 19-21 days 22-24 days 25-26 days  Changes in Cooked Eggs 1. Egg Proteins Coagulate Egg white solidifies at 60°C, and the yolk solidifies at 70°C. Digestibility Normally cooked eggs are easy to digest. Green Color Formation Eggs cooked at high temperatures for extended periods or stale eggs may develop a green color. High Heat + pH → Hydrogen Sulfide + Iron Effect on Avidin in Egg White Iron- Avidin + Heat → Avidin loses its properties. sulfur ring  Cooking Methods for Eggs Boiling in the Shell: The outcome depends on the initial temperature of the egg and water, the cooking time, and the amount of water used. Frying in an Oiled Pan: Eggs are cracked directly into the pan and cooked. Mixed with Other Foods: Eggs are used as a coagulating, leavening, or emulsifying agent. They enhance the flavor, color, and aroma of the dish. Ensure proper firmness for the desired consistency. Tempering: Beaten egg + lemon juice/yogurt is slowly added while the dish is removed from the heat to avoid curdling.  Leavening Property of Eggs Denaturation During Whipping When eggs are whipped, the proteins in the egg denature. Incorporation of Air Air bubbles are introduced into the whipped eggs. Leavening Effect in Baking When well-whipped eggs are mixed with flour and baked (e.g., in cakes), the trapped air expands, causing the dough to rise. Egg Yolk as an Emulsifier Egg yolk → Lecithin (phospholipid) → Acts as an emulsifier. Emulsion Formation Lecithin reduces the surface tension between water and oil, allowing oil to disperse into water, forming an emulsion. This property is crucial in making rich pastries and mayonnaise. Frequency of Egg Consumption Among Adults in the Past Month (%) According to TBSA 2010, 38% of adults consumed eggs daily or 5-6 times per week in the past month. The frequency of adults who consumed eggs every other day was 24%, while 26% consumed eggs 1-2 times per week. Additionally, 12% consumed eggs 1-2 times per month or not at all. 7% 24% 26% 4% 32% 31% 5-6 3-4 1-2 1-2 Those Who Everyday times/week times/week times/week times/week Consume 1/month  Is Excess Protein Consumption Harmful? Animal-Based Proteins and Health Risks Animal-derived proteins contain saturated fats and cholesterol, which can increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Kidney Strain The breakdown of proteins produces waste products that are excreted by the kidneys through urine. This process can cause water loss, leading to excessive kidney strain and tissue damage, potentially resulting in the premature aging of the organ. Calcium Loss and Kidney Stones Excessive protein intake increases calcium excretion in urine, which can elevate the risk of kidney stone formation. Is Excess Protein Consumption Harmful? Dehydration Stress on Kidneys and Liver: Excessive protein intake can strain the kidneys and liver due to the increased need for processing protein by-products. Increased Calcium Excretion in Urine: Higher protein consumption can lead to increased calcium loss through urine, potentially weakening bones and increasing the risk of kidney stones. Gout in Joints: Protein metabolism can raise uric acid levels, leading to the accumulation of urate crystals in joints, a condition known as gout. Should We Consume High Protein for Muscle Growth? There is no evidence supporting the necessity of consuming protein beyond the required amount for muscle growth and strength Excess protein consumed is stored as fat in the body. Legumes  Legumes (Mature Seeds): Chickpeas The average annual consumption per person Lentils is 31 kg. Broad beans The percentage of individuals who consume Beans legumes 1-2 times a week is 46.6% Peas Black-eyed peas Soybeans  Importance of Legume Consumption Nutrient Composition: As mature seeds, legumes are primarily composed of carbohydrates and proteins. The outer part of the seeds contains fiber, while the inner part is rich in starch. Low Fat Content: Legumes have a low fat content, primarily consisting of polyunsaturated fatty acids, and they are high in protein. Alternative Protein Source: In diets where meat and eggs are unavailable or when low-fat and low-cholesterol diets are recommended, legumes can be increased to meet protein requirements. Protein Quality: The protein quality of legumes is relatively low due to: Limited amounts of essential sulfur-containing amino acids. High fiber content. Difficulty in digestion.  Importance of Legume Consumption Improving Protein Quality: When legumes are combined with grains in appropriate proportions and cooked well, their protein quality improves. Rich in Minerals and Vitamins: Legumes are rich in minerals such as calcium, zinc, magnesium, and iron, as well as B-complex vitamins, excluding vitamin B12. Boosting Bioavailability: Proper cooking and consuming legumes alongside vegetables and fruits rich in vitamin C enhance the bioavailability (utilization in the body) of iron and calcium present in legumes.  Importance of Legume Consumption Source of Nutrients: Legumes are not only a good source of carbohydrates and plant-based protein but also provide dietary fiber, oligosaccharides, and phytochemicals. Health Benefits of Soluble and Insoluble Fiber: Soluble dietary fiber in legumes helps regulate blood cholesterol and blood sugar levels. Insoluble dietary fiber promotes healthy stomach and intestinal movements. Recommended for Cardiovascular and Diabetic Patients: Due to their high fiber and low fat content, legumes are especially recommended in the diets of individuals with heart disease and diabetes. They are advised to be consumed 2-3 times a week.  Importance of Legume Consumption Improved Protein Quality with Grains: When legumes are consumed together with grains, the protein quality significantly increases. Reducing Gas Formation: Soaking and proper cooking minimize the gas-producing effects of legumes. Retain Cooking Water: Cooking water should not be discarded, as it contains valuable minerals. Combine with Vitamin C-Rich Foods: To enhance the bioavailability of minerals, legumes should be consumed with foods rich in vitamin C.  Legumes Outer part Fiber Composition of Legumes: Main Components: Carbohydrates + Proteins Inner Fat Content: part: Contains polyunsaturated fatty acids. Starch Soybeans have the highest fat content among legumes. Chickpeas (higher fat content) > Beans, Lentils (lower fat content).  Legumes - Protein Content High Protein Content: Legumes are rich in protein, but their protein quality is relatively low. Dietary Consumption: Increased consumption in the diet can help meet protein requirements. Biological Value: The biological value of legume proteins ranges between 40-60% compared to egg protein. Soybeans have the highest biological value among legumes. Although chickpeas and lentils have lower biological values, they are easier to digest.  Legumes - Protein Content Legumes → Protein Quality ↓ Reason: The lower protein quality is due to limited amounts of essential sulfur-containing amino acids and digestion difficulties. Solution: Mixing legumes with grains in specific proportions and cooking them well can increase the biological value of the combination to up to 70%. Applications in Nutrition: Protein-rich mixtures have been developed for those who lack access to sufficient animal protein. Studies have demonstrated that such combinations support normal growth in children. Legumes Nutritional Components of Legumes: Rich in Minerals and Vitamins: Calcium Zinc Magnesium Iron B Vitamins (except B12) Vitamin E Impact of Phytates: Phytate ↑ → Reduces the bioavailability of zinc, calcium, and iron. Soybeans and Heat Treatment: Soybeans + Heat → Improves iron bioavailability. Frequency of Legume Consumption Among Adults in the Past Month (%) According to the TBSA 2010 study, approximately half of the adults consumed legumes 1-2 times per week. The frequency of those who consumed legumes daily or 5-6 times a week was 4.4%, while 11.3% consumed them every other day. However, 38% consumed legumes very rarely (1-2 times a month) or not at all. 2,5% 11% 10% 46% 20% 2% 5-6 3-4 Those Who 1-2 1-2 Everyday times/week times/week Consume times/week times/week 1/month Use of Legumes Use of Legumes in South and East Asian Countries Soybeans: Utilized for oil extraction Production of: Soy sauce Soy milk Tofu – A type of cheese made from soy milk Use of Legumes In Our Country: Chickpeas: Consumed on their own or mixed with other foods (e.g., soups). Processed into roasted chickpeas (leblebi). Lentils, Beans, and Others: Used in stews, with or without meat. Prepared as olive oil-based dishes (pilaki). Rice and Bulgur Pilafs: Chickpeas and lentils are often combined with bulgur or rice to make pilafs. Nutritional Benefit: Cooking or consuming legumes with grains enhances the protein's bioavailability.  Cooking Process for Legumes Soaking Process for Legumes: Duration and Water Temperature: Soak legumes in water at room temperature for 8-24 hours. Soaking time can be reduced with warm water. Chickpeas and beans may require longer soaking times. Water Absorption: During soaking, legumes absorb water equivalent to their weight. Exceptions: Lentils do not need soaking as their outer shell has already been removed. Discarding Soaking Water: The soaking water contains gas-producing oligosaccharides and should be discarded. Retaining Outer Skins: Do not remove the outer skins unless preparing food for children or to improve digestibility. Cooking Process for Legumes 2. Cooking Raw Legumes: Contain anti-trypsin (an inhibitor of the trypsin enzyme that facilitates protein digestion). Cooking neutralizes this property, making legumes easier to digest. Cooking Temperature: Cooking at dry heat above 100°C causes protein loss. Moist Heat Cooking: When legumes are cooked in water, the cooking liquid contains B vitamins and minerals, so it should not be discarded. Cooking Process for Legumes Effect of Hard Water: Hard water makes legumes harder to cook. Using Soda to Ease Cooking: To soften legumes, 0.5% sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) can be added: Mix 1.5 level teaspoons of soda into 5 cups of water. Pressure Cooking: Cooking legumes in a pressure cooker is effective and does not require adding soda.  Legume-Related Toxicities Lathyrism: Caused by consuming Lathyrus sativus (grass pea) or karatohum. Results in paralysis of the lower body. Favism: Associated with fava beans. Symptoms include anemia, hemoglobinuria, and high fever. Effects occur 24-48 hours after consuming toxic fava beans. Commonly observed when eating raw fresh fava beans. Cooking neutralizes the toxin. Aflatoxin: Linked to peanuts.(pistachio) The toxin is produced by the Aspergillus flavus mold. Prevention includes: Reducing moisture content below 12%. Ensuring peanuts are free from foreign matter. Removing the red outer skin at mild heat and ensuring no membranes remain on the surface.  Legumes - Iron Absorption The levels of phytates, tannins, and lectins, which reduce iron absorption in legumes, decrease when the outer skins are removed and the legumes are cooked. When legume dishes are consumed with vitamin C sources, the bioavailability of iron increases. Soybeans contain isoflavones, a subgroup of flavonoids, which have protective effects against cancer and heart diseases.  Storage of Legumes Moisture Control: Increased moisture (humidity ↑) promotes the growth of microorganisms, which raises the temperature and accelerates mold growth on the grains. Pest Protection: Legumes stored in hot conditions develop thicker outer skins, increasing soaking and cooking times. Moisture + Heat ↑: Leads to increased mold growth (molds ↑) and the production of aflatoxins. Special Care for Lentils: Lentils are prone to insect infestation. They should be washed and dried immediately after harvest to prevent pests. Oil Seeds and Nuts  Oil Seeds and Nuts Hazelnuts, Sesame, Walnuts, Sunflower Seeds, Peanuts, etc. Rich in Nutrients: B Vitamins Vitamin E Antioxidant Properties: Minerals: Magnesium Possess antioxidant capacity Protein Neutralize free radicals Healthy Fats: Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats  Importance of Consuming Oil Seeds Specific Nutritional Highlights: Hazelnuts are rich in monounsaturated fatty acids. Walnuts are high in both monounsaturated fatty acids and omega-3 fatty acids. Health Benefits: Due to their unsaturated fatty acids, vitamin E, and flavonoid content, nuts and oil seeds reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancer.  Importance of Consuming Oil Seeds Storage and Preservation: These foods can spoil and develop mold if not stored under proper conditions. Preventing Mold: Harvest at the right time. Avoid leaving them on the soil for long periods. Separate broken, cracked, and diseased seeds. Home Storage Tips: Do not store shelled and unshelled seeds together. Keep them in a dry, moisture-free environment. Consumption Recommendations: Avoid consuming seeds coated with salt or sugar. Frequency of Oil Seed and Nut Consumption Among Adults in the Past Month (%) According to the TBSA 2010 study, the frequency of adults consuming oil seeds and nuts daily or 5-6 times per week was 15% and 14%, respectively. The frequency of those consuming these foods 1-2 times per week was 24%. Additionally, 47% of adults consumed these foods very rarely (1-2 times a month) or not at all. 4% 4% 4% 14% 24% 1-2 11% 3-4 1-2 1-2 11% 5-6 times/week Those Who times/week times/week times/week Everyday times/week Consume 1/month Source: Turkey Nutrition and Health Survey 2010 (TÜBER 2015). Antioxidant Capacity (mmol/100 g) (with inner skin intact) Bioactive Compounds: Flavonoids, terpenes, resveratrol, 3,5,4-trihydroxystilbene. Almond 0.47 Health Benefits: FDA Recommendation: Chestnut 0.19 Anti-inflammatory properties. The FDA has stated that consuming 42.9 g/day of one Hazelnut 0.70 Cholesterol-lowering effects. or more of these nuts may Walnut 23.1 Effective in preventing chronic reduce the risk of coronary Pine nut 0.37 diseases. heart disease. Pistachio 1.27 Anti-aging benefits. Impact of Skin Removal: Removing the inner skin reduces antioxidant capacity.  Sesame Uses: Used in the production of tahini and tahini halva. Added to flour-based foods as a flavor enhancer. Nutritional Benefits: High in protein Rich in B vitamins Abundant in minerals Provides significant energy Recommended For: Essential in the diet of children and heavy labor workers due to its high energy and nutrient content.  Storage of Oil Seeds and Nuts Mold Risk: Molds such as Aspergillus and Penicillium can grow under improper storage conditions. Harvesting: Must be harvested at the appropriate time. Should not be left on the soil for prolonged periods. Broken, cracked, or diseased nuts should be removed. Humidity and Moisture Control: The relative humidity of the storage area should not exceed 60%, and the moisture content of the seeds should remain below 5%. Salt Usage: Coarse salt can be used during storage as it absorbs moisture. Is Excess Protein Consumption Harmful? The body does not have a free amino acid storage system. When you consume more protein than your body needs, the excess proteins are broken down and stored as body fat.  Proteins Consumed Through Food When a protein-rich meal is consumed, most of the absorbed amino acids undergo deamination, while the remaining amino acids enter circulation as free amino acids. The majority of amino acids in circulation are branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs). In muscle tissue, these amino acids are rapidly broken down. In the brain, tryptophan is used to synthesize serotonin.  Is Excess Protein Consumption Harmful? Animal-Based Proteins and Health Risks Saturated Fat and Cholesterol: Animal-based proteins contain saturated fat and cholesterol, increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Kidney Strain and Water Loss: The breakdown of proteins produces by-products that are excreted by the kidneys through urine. This process causes water loss, placing excessive strain on the kidneys and leading to tissue damage, potentially causing premature aging of the organ. Calcium Excretion and Kidney Stones: Excessive protein intake increases calcium excretion in urine, raising the risk of kidney stone formation. Is Excess Protein Consumption Harmful? Dehydration Strain on Kidneys and Liver: Excessive protein intake can overload the kidneys and liver due to increased processing demands. Calcium Excretion in Urine: Increased protein consumption leads to higher calcium excretion in urine. Gout in Joints: Excess protein metabolism can elevate uric acid levels, resulting in gout, a condition characterized by urate crystal accumulation in the joints. Should We Consume High Protein for Muscle Growth? There is no evidence supporting the necessity of consuming protein beyond the required amount for muscle growth and strength Excess protein consumed is stored as fat in the body. For Individuals Who Exercise To enhance their performance, individuals who exercise should: Consume adequate energy and nutrients. Maintain a balanced and varied diet. Foods Rich in Complex Blood Sugar Regulation: Carbohydrates for Those Who Maintaining stable blood sugar levels is Exercise essential for optimal performance. Muscle Glycogen Stores: The most important complex To keep muscle glycogen stores full, athletes should consume foods rich in complex carbohydrate-rich foods for carbohydrates. individuals who exercise are: Bread Grains Rice Pasta  Endurance Sports These are sports that require long-duration, low-intensity activities. Endurance athletes are defined as those engaging in activities lasting 30 minutes to 4 hours, while ultra-endurance athletes participate in activities lasting over 4 hours. Examples: 3200-meter run Cross-country Marathon 2000-meter rowing Importance of Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are crucial for endurance athletes. After prolonged exercise, muscle glycogen stores can become depleted, emphasizing the need for carbohydrate replenishment. Strength/Power Sports Includes sports such as: Weightlifting, Discus throw, Shot put, Hammer throw 100-meter swimming, Table tennis Role of Protein Post-Exercise: Consuming protein after strength training significantly stimulates muscle protein synthesis, leading to positive effects on recovery and growth. Combination of Carbohydrates and Amino Acids: The increase in protein synthesis is enhanced by the combination of carbohydrates and amino acids. Timing of Nutrient Intake: To maximize muscle protein synthesis, both carbohydrates and proteins should be consumed before and after exercise. Team Sports Team sports involve two or more players working together to compete against opponents. The most common examples are: Soccer (football) Volleyball Basketball Energy Requirements: Factors such as the athlete's position in the game and body weight result in varying energy needs among team members. Recommended Protein Intake ENDURANCE STRENGTH/POWER TEAM SPORTS: SPORTS: SPORTS: Recommended Recommended Recommended protein intake: 1.2- amount: amount: 1.7 g/kg/day. Approximately 1.1- Approximately 1.4- 2.0 g/kg/day 2.0 g/kg/day Protein should Protein should constitute 12-20% of constitute total energy intake. approximately 15- 20% of total energy intake. In Conclusion: Protein should be consumed in appropriate amounts. Consuming excessive protein does not increase muscle mass. Mechanism of High-Protein Diets on Body Weight Loss Thermogenesis ↑ (amino acid synthesis, Energy expenditureä ureagenesis, gluconeogenesis) Satietyä Wight loss High-Protein Diets Energy intakeæ Hunger æ Replacement of Refined Carbohydrates (CHO) with Proteins Postprandial insulinæ Gİ ve GLæ  Low-Carbohydrate, High-Protein Diets (Atkins, South Beach, Zone, Karatay Diets) Key Characteristics: Carbohydrate intake: