Meat Science and Cooking Techniques

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Questions and Answers

What primarily influences the tenderness of meat?

Animal's species and the cooking method

Type of meat and cooking liquid used

Flavor profile and the animal's diet

Age and fat content of the animal (correct)

Which combination of factors increases the likelihood of meat being tough?

High water content and optimal age

Young age and high fat content

Poorly fed and highly active animals (correct)

Tender cooking methods and moist heat

Which cooking method is likely to tenderize meat effectively?

Moist heat cooking methods (correct)

Deep frying in hot oil

Grilling with dry heat

Slow roasting with low temperature

What happens to myoglobin during cooking?

It denatures into metmyoglobin, resulting in a brown color Signup and view all the answers

Which vitamin is least likely to be retained when meat is cooked at high temperatures?

Thiamine Signup and view all the answers

How does cooking water affect vitamin retention in meat?

Retention is highest when water is used and retained Signup and view all the answers

What compounds are formed in partially charred meat cooked at high temperatures?

Carcinogenic nitrosamines Signup and view all the answers

What effect does excessive water loss during cooking have on meat?

It results in a dry texture and negatively affects flavor Signup and view all the answers

What role do antioxidants like vitamins C and E play when consuming processed meat products?

They neutralize harmful substances produced by nitrites and nitrates. Signup and view all the answers

What is the average annual red meat consumption in Denmark as mentioned?

60 kg/year Signup and view all the answers

Why should the consumption of processed meat products be limited?

They have a high saturated fat content. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of individuals in the study did not consume red meat?

20% Signup and view all the answers

Which process is specifically mentioned as being used in the production of salami and sausages?

Using nitrites and nitrates Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of individuals in the study consume chicken once or twice a week?

42.9% Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of adequate dietary intake of n-3 fatty acids?

They prevent cardiovascular diseases and aid brain development. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of adults consumed red meat every day or more than once a day in the past month?

6.4% Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cooking method used for meats with low connective tissue?

Dry heat cooking Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is essential when roasting meat in the oven to ensure proper cooking?

Positioning the fatty side of the meat on top Signup and view all the answers

What is a recommended practice when grilling meatballs to ensure even cooking?

Cook one side thoroughly before turning Signup and view all the answers

What is a major disadvantage of frying meatballs in oil at high temperatures?

Difficulty for heat to penetrate the interior Signup and view all the answers

Why is moist heat cooking considered the healthiest meat cooking method?

It uses no additional fat Signup and view all the answers

What technique helps prevent tough meat when cooking cuts with high connective tissue?

Using a low temperature for longer cooking Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of kebabs and similar dishes made from meat?

They generally involve low heat cooking with potential water addition Signup and view all the answers

What happens if the oil temperature is too high when frying meat?

Harmful compounds may form Signup and view all the answers

Which combination creates a high-quality protein?

Rice and Milk Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of protein denaturation?

Decreased protein function Signup and view all the answers

At what temperature does egg white begin to solidify?

60°C Signup and view all the answers

What indicates that an egg may be stale when tested in saltwater?

It floats Signup and view all the answers

Which type of foods typically contain high-quality proteins?

Meat and Fish Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the denaturation process of egg whites is true?

It is irreversible when exposed to heat. Signup and view all the answers

How can the freshness of an egg be determined?

By its size of the air cell Signup and view all the answers

What occurs to egg proteins during cooking?

They coagulate Signup and view all the answers

What is a recommended method to soften legumes during cooking?

Adding 0.5% sodium bicarbonate Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following toxins is linked to peanuts?

Aflatoxin Signup and view all the answers

What effect do phytates, tannins, and lectins have on iron absorption from legumes?

They decrease iron absorption Signup and view all the answers

How can cooking fava beans mitigate their associated symptoms?

By neutralizing the toxin present Signup and view all the answers

What condition can cause paralysis of the lower body when consuming specific legumes?

Lathyrism Signup and view all the answers

What should be controlled to prevent mold growth when storing legumes?

Moisture and temperature Signup and view all the answers

Which legume is particularly prone to insect infestation and needs special care?

Lentils Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of cooking legumes with a source of vitamin C?

It increases the bioavailability of iron Signup and view all the answers

What health risk is increased due to the consumption of animal-based proteins?

A higher risk of cardiovascular diseases Signup and view all the answers

What occurs as a result of excess protein intake concerning calcium?

Calcium excretion in urine increases Signup and view all the answers

What compound's elevation can result from excessive protein metabolism?

Uric acid Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT a recommended practice for individuals who exercise?

Rely solely on protein supplements Signup and view all the answers

What can excessive protein consumption lead to in terms of organ health?

Strain on kidneys and liver Signup and view all the answers

Which food groups are particularly emphasized for maintaining muscle glycogen stores?

Foods rich in complex carbohydrates Signup and view all the answers

What is the key to maintaining stable blood sugar levels for optimal performance?

Balanced and varied diet Signup and view all the answers

How is an endurance athlete defined?

Engaged in activities lasting 30 minutes to 4 hours Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Meat and Meat Products, Eggs and Legumes, Nuts and Oil Seeds

Meat contains protein, fat, minerals, and vitamins.
It is a significant protein source, crucial during periods of increased protein requirements, such as infancy and childhood.
The proportion of protein and fat varies depending on leanness or fattiness.
Fatty meats have higher saturated fatty acid and cholesterol content.
Fish are a significant source of omega-3 fatty acids.
Meats are low in vitamin C, vitamin E, and calcium, but rich in vitamin B12, iron, and zinc.
Iron in meat is highly bioavailable, preventing iron deficiency anemia.
Individuals with specific conditions, like coronary artery disease, diabetes, or hypertension, should prefer lean meats, skinless poultry, and fish.

Types of Meat and Meat Products

Cattle (Beef)
Sheep (Lamb/Mutton)
Pig (Pork)
Poultry (e.g., Chicken, Rooster, Duck, Goose, Turkey)
Edible parts of Seafood (e.g., Fish, Mussels, Oysters)

Meat Consumption

United States: 82 kg per year.
Our Country: 19 kg (52 g/day)
Denmark: 60 kg per year.
Percentage of individuals who don't consume red meat: 20% in our country.
Percentage of individuals consuming chicken once or twice a week: 42.9%
Percentage of individuals who don't consume fish: 39% in our country.
Frequency of red meat consumption amongst adults, in one month in Turkey, 2010:
- 2% consumed daily
- 9% consumed 5-6 times / week
- 28% consumed 1-2 times/week
- 16% consumed every 15 days
- 20% every 1 month.

Meat Structure

As connective tissue increases, meat toughness increases.
Connective tissue is higher in parts of the animal that are often highly active.
Collagen hydrolyzes into gelatin at 60-80°C.
Elastin does not hydrolyze.

Meat - Protein

Actin and Myosin: Crucial for muscle movement through the protein Actomyosin.
Myogen: Plays a role in muscle contraction and structure.
Albumin: Maintains osmotic pressure.
Myoglobin: Gives red meat its characteristic red color.

Rigor Mortis

After slaughter, muscle movements continue.
Oxygen intake stops, leading to lactic acid formation.
Muscle remains active and hardens.
The acids increase water retention in the meat.
With enzyme action, the hardness disappears. • Rigor mortis resolution time in different groups
- Poultry: 1 hour
- Large animals (cattle, sheep): 10 days at 0°C, 3 days at 15°C

Meat Composition

Saturated fats (palmitic, stearic fatty acids)
Minerals and some organic components
Small molecules containing creatine and amino acid nitrogen
Freshly slaughtered animal meat > Glycogen

Factors Affecting Meat Flavor

1. Meat Tenderness:
- Depends on species, age, diet, connective tissue, and nutritional condition.
- Meat from poorly fed or highly active animals is tough; as fat content increases, tenderness increases.
- Milk-fed lamb has a higher water content and is less flavorful than meat from animals slaughtered at optimal age.
1. Cooking Method:
- Raw meat proteins denature and solidify with heat.
- Excessive water loss makes meat dry, impacting flavor.
- Increased connective tissue makes meat tough cooked with dry heat.
- Moist heat cooking (hydrolyzes collagen) makes meat tender.

Changes in Meat During Cooking

Proteins coagulate, and water is lost.
Moist heat helps tenderize meat by hydrolyzing collagen.
Myoglobin transforms to metmyoglobin, leading to a brown color.
Nitrogenous molecules (amines, hydrogen sulfate, and organic acids) are formed, enhancing flavor.
Melted fats and gelatin form a fatty gel when cooled.
Vitamin loss occurs at high temperatures (especially folic acid, B1, and B12 in grilled meats).
B-vitamin loss depends on temperature and duration (0-40%, average 20% in baking, grilling, or frying).
In moist cooking, vitamin loss can be up to 70% (Thiamine loses most).
Cooking with minimal water and retaining the cooking liquid prevents loss.
Nitrosamines form during high heat or close contact with fire in partially charred meat.

Meat Cooking Methods

1. Dry Heat Cooking: Grilling, oven roasting, and cooking in oil-free or lightly oiled pans. Meats with low connective tissue, ground meat to meatballs, use very high heat, often leads to surface charring increasing water loss.
1. Moist Heat Cooking: Using methods such as Kebabs, steaks, and chops cooked over low heat use water if needed. Examples: tray-baked chops, oven kebabs, and meatball dishes. Low heat prevents steam loss.
1. Frying in Oil: Suitable for meatballs. If oil temperature is too high, the outer surface solidifies, making heat penetration difficult, and resulting in tough meat.

Foods Made from Meat

Sausage and Sucuk (Dry Fermented Sausage): Meat, minced, salt + spices added, stuffed into casings, dried.
Salami and Pastrami: Partially dried, seasoned with spices.
Cold Cuts: Meat boiled, cooked, pressed with gelatin.
Kavurma (Braised Meat): Braised as ground meat or in small pieces, sealed with a layer of fat.

Health Standards for Meat

Meat must come from healthy animals.
Avoid diseases transmitted from animals to humans such as intestinal parasites, bacterial diseases: anthrax, glanders, tuberculosis, salmonellosis, foot-and-mouth disease, and smallpox, and mad cow disease.

Meat Storage

Minced meat: Refrigerated for 1 day max.
Whole cuts: 2-3 days in the refrigerator.
Cooked meat should be divided into portions suitable for cooking and wrapped in parchment paper before freezing.
Frozen: -2°C for 2 weeks, -18°C to -32°C for longer storage.
Thaw in the refrigerator, do not refreeze thawed meat.

Meat Inspection Marks

Edible Meats: Circular symbol
Edible Low-Quality Meats: White circle
Edible Meats After Proper Cooking: Rectangular symbol
Meats To Be Discarded: Triangular symbol

Poultry Meats, Red Meats

Domestic Fowl (Poultry): Low fat and energy; high protein, riboflavin, niacin, B6, and B12.
Red Meats: High fat and energy; low protein, high iron.

Seafood

Consumption: 3 kg per person annually, 65% fresh, 35% dried/salted/canned.
Nutritional value: High-quality protein, iodine, phosphorus, zinc, vitamins A, K, and B.
Energy content: Fatty fish have higher energy.
Unsaturated fatty acids: High in omega-3 fatty acids.
Calcium intake: Fish with bones are a good source.
Health Benefits: Reduced risk of coronary heart disease.

Fish

Eyes: Bright, clear, no blemishes.
Gills: Reddish-pink.
Scales and Fins: Firm and intact, good condition.
Odor: No unpleasant or fishy smell.
Press Test: Indentation quickly bounces back when pressed.

Fish Storage

Short-term: Stored in ice, below 0°C(32°F).
Long-term:
- Freezing: Fresh fish frozen at -32°C (-25.6°F), stored at -18°C (0°F) for 3-6 months.
- Salting: Curing with salt.
- Canning: Processed and sealed in airtight containers for extended storage.
- Drying: Fish dried (e.g., "çiroz") to remove moisture.

Fish Meal

Fish meal is made from processed fish.
Enriched for low-quality protein sources.
Commonly used as an animal feed.

Fish Cooking Techniques

Low connective tissue in fish means it breaks apart easily during cooking.
Fatty fish is best for grilling or steaming in its own juices (e.g., poaching/en papillote).
Lean fish is ideal for frying (flour coat prevents falling apart).

Egg

Average annual per capita consumption: 4 kg in our country.
Percentage of daily egg consumers: 30% in our country.
11% shell, 58% egg white, 31% egg yolk.
Egg white proteins: 63% albumin, remainder mucin, mucoid, and avidin.
Egg yolk proteins: Mainly vitellin and phosvitin.

Egg, Class A Eggs (Turkish Food Codex)

Intact shell, clean, slightly rough texture, normal shape.
Air cell (4-6 mm) ≤ 6 mm, stationary
Egg white is clear, transparent, jelly-like consistency, foreign matter-free.
Yolk is round, centered, not separating when rotated, no foreign matter.
Eggs should not contain a visible embryo.
Odor-free.

Egg Regulation, Class A

Weight tolerances:
For 180+ eggs: Proportion of any one weight class lower than the specified weight must be ≤5%.
For inspections involving fewer than 180 eggs: Tolerances double those specified for 180+ eggs.
Rounding rule: If the calculated number of eggs is not whole, round up to the next whole number.

Egg Composition

Energy, water, ash, protein, nitrogen, total fat, carbohydrates: Specific values per 100g of edible food.

Egg - Protein

High-quality protein.
100% of egg proteins are converted into body proteins in animals.
Reference proteins.

Importance of Egg Consumption

Egg yolk is rich in iron, vitamin A, and B-group vitamins.
Essential for infants and children due to high-quality protein.
Crucial protein source for restricted protein intake individuals (kidney/liver failure).

Importance of Egg Consumption, Raw

From a food safety perspective, consuming raw eggs is not recommended (difficult to digest, incomplete biotin absorption).
Healthy individuals can consume eggs 3-4 times per week.
Those with cardiovascular disease should limit to 1-2 times per week.

Importance of Egg Consumption, Other Points

One egg is equivalent to half a portion of meat and meat products.
Combining eggs with vegetables and grains minimizes cholesterol impact.
Lecithin in eggs regulates brain functions and liver protection.
Choose clean, crack-free eggs, store unwashed, and avoid prolonged boiling. (can cause sulfur rings).
Egg yolk color is influenced by the chicken's diet.

Physical and Chemical Changes in Stored Eggs

Egg white viscosity decreases, water moves to yolk, and air cell enlarges over time.
pH increases, protein tertiary structure breaks down, ammonia content increases, and inorganic phosphate content increases.
Microorganisms can multiply inside the egg if stored improperly.
Eggs should be stored in clean, dry places free from foreign odors, protected against impacts, direct sunlight, and extreme temperatures.
Not mandatory to refrigerate for the first 18 days after laying.
Must be refrigerated at (+8) - (+5)°C starting from the 18th day.

Protein Quality

Amino acid profile in foods: Digestibility refers to the ability of food proteins to be converted into body proteins. Food processing and storage can break down amino acids, affecting their digestibility.
Reference protein: Human milk, eggs, meat, fish, milk, and dairy products.
High-quality proteins.
Low-quality proteins (plant-based foods).
Digestibility varies amongst foods, e.g., 91-100% for meats, milk, and eggs, 79-90% for cereal proteins, and 69-90% for legumes.

Ways to Improve Protein Quality

Bulgur pilaf + kidney beans: Balances amino acid profile.
Cereals + legumes: high-quality protein.
Rice + milk (rice pudding): Balances amino acid profile.
Milk and dairy products + cereals: High-quality protein.

Denaturation of Proteins

Denaturation results: Enzymes lose their activity, proteins' solubility decreases, proteins' functions diminish, digestibility increases.
Solidification and whitening of an egg due to heat.
Egg-white denaturation is irreversible, while many other denaturation processes can be reversed.

Which Eggs Are Healthy?

Proper cooking time is critical for egg health and nutrient absorption.

How Long Should Eggs Be Cooked?

The iron in the egg yolk reacts with hydrogen sulfide in the egg white, forming iron sulfide (FeS).

Determining the Freshness of an Egg

Air cell size: Fresh eggs have a small air cell, while older eggs have a larger one.
Floating: Eggs that float in salted water are considered stale.
Cracked eggs: Yolk remains intact, centered, surrounded by thick egg white.

Changes in Cooked Eggs

Proteins coagulate: Egg white (60°C), egg yolk (70°C).
Cooked eggs are easily digested.
Green color formation: Occurs at high temperatures or with stale eggs (due to high heat and pH forming iron sulfide)..
Effect on avidin: Heat causes it lose its properties.

Cooking Methods for Eggs

Boiling in the shell: Outcome depends on initial temperature of water and cooking time.
Frying in an oiled pan: Eggs are cracked directly into a hot pan and cooked.
Mixed with other foods: Used as a coagulating, leavening, or emulsifying agent, enhances flavor/color/aroma.
Tempering: Beaten egg + lemon juice/yogurt added slowly removed from heat to avoid curdling.

Leavening Property of Eggs

Protein denaturation during whipping.
Incorporation of air into whipped eggs
Leavening effect in baking:Trapped air expands for dough rising.
Egg yolk as an emulsifier (lecithin): Reduces surface tension between water and oil, useful in pastries and mayonnaise.

Frequency of Egg Consumption

%31 of adults eat eggs daily, 5-6 weekly, 1-2 times weekly. 1-2 monthly.
%26 of adults consume eggs 1-2 times per week.
%24 consume it every other day.
A portion consuming eggs every 15 days or 1 month is significantly less.

Excess Protein Consumption

Body does not have free amino acid storage.
Excess protein is broken down and stored as body fat.
Kidney and liver strain, dehydration, gout, and calcium excretion can occur with excessive intake.

Proteins Consumed Through Food

Protein from food is absorbed mostly as amino acids after deamination.
BCAAs (branched-chain amino acids) are the primary amino acids found in circulation.
Muscle breakdown proteins for rapid utilization
Tryptophan for serotonin synthesis in brain.

Low-Carbohydrate, High-Protein Diets

Atkins, South Beach, Zone, Karatay Diets.
Key characteristics: low carbohydrate (<20g/day), high protein and fat, multiple phases (initial, continuation, and maintenance).
Initial effects: increased urination (diuresis), weight loss (mostly water) in first few weeks.
Compared to low-fat diets: similar long-term outcomes, but greater short-term weight loss.
Potential risks: high saturated fat, possible cancer and cardiovascular risk.

Protein Turnover

Constant protein synthesis and breakdown in the body.

Amino Acids

9 essential amino acids: Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, and Valine.
These essential amino acids must be obtained from food, as the body cannot produce them.

Dietary Protein Sources

Plant-based: Legumes, oilseeds, grains, vegetables.
Animal-based: Meat, fish, poultry, milk, and dairy products.
Animal-based proteins are generally of higher quality.

Daily Protein Intake Recommendations

Endurance sports: 1.1-2.0 g/kg/day, 12-20% of total energy intake.
Strength/power sports: 1.4-2.0 g/kg/day, 15-20% of total energy intake.
Team sports: 1.2-1.7 g/kg/day.

Conclusion

Protein intake should be appropriate; excessive intake does not increase muscle mass.

Mechanism of High-Protein Diets on Body Weight Loss

Thermogenesis (increased metabolism from amino acid synthesis), satiety (reduced hunger), replacement of carbohydrates with proteins (decrease blood sugar levels), post-prandial insulin regulation.

Specific Dietary Recommendations

Endurance sports: Maintaining stable blood sugar, replenish glycogen stores with complex carbohydrates.
Strength/power sports: Protein and carbohydrate consumption before and after exercise.
Team sports: Varying energy needs depending on player's position, weight, and role.

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Description

Explore the factors influencing meat tenderness and the impact of cooking methods on both meat quality and nutrient retention. This quiz covers the science behind meat preparation, from myoglobin changes during cooking to the effects of antioxidants in processed meats.