Human Anatomy & Physiology (MTCC 113) PDF

Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. (Lecture) MTCC 113...

Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. (Lecture) MTCC 113 HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY with Pathophysiology Learning Objectives The students shall be able to: 1. define anatomy and physiology and explain their relationship through a word cloud activity; 2. recall the historical development of anatomical science and the different scientists through 3. identify the levels of structural organization that comprise the human body and explain their relatedness; Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. MTCC 113 Vocabulary HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY with Pathophysiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use Vocabulary of the Day of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. a(an)- Meaning: not, without, lack of, absence Example: aplasia “absence of development” a complete failure of an organ or tissue to develop Aplasia cutis congenita Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. de- Example: dehydration removal, loss ”loss of water” “removal of water” or Meaning: down, without, Vocabulary of the Day Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. dis- dissect Example: separate tissues” Meaning: absence, removal, separation “to cut apart” or “to Vocabulary of the Day Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. contra- Example: contralateral Meaning: against, opposite, opposed “on the opposite side” Vocabulary of the Day Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. hyper- or panic Example: hyperventilation “increased breathing” Meaning: over, excess, abnormally high, increased Usually caused by anxiety Vocabulary of the Day Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. hypo- Example: hypotension “low blood pressure” Meaning: under, below, abnormally low, decreased Vocabulary of the Day Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Example: unchanging homeostasis “same state” Meaning: same, homo- or homeo- a steady body state Vocabulary of the Day Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. macro- “big cell” Example: macrocyte Meaning: large, abnormally large Vocabulary of the Day Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Example: cardiomegaly Meaning: large, abnormally large “enlarged heart” mega- or megal(o) Vocabulary of the Day Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Topic 1.1. MTCC 113 HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY with Pathophysiology Defining Anatomy & Physiology  Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Activity Time! 5957 425 Enter the code: Access the Link Below https://www.menti.com/alv1wutc85hi  Defining Anatomy Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Anatomy (Greek: ana, “up” + tomia, “process of cutting”) – Study body of structures and the relationships among them Methods in Studying Anatomy 1. Physical Examination: (a) inspection, (b) palpation, (c) auscultation, and (d) percussion 2. Cadaver Dissection 3. Exploratory Surgery 4. Imaging Techniques © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Physical Examination Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. 1. Inspection: visually observing the body 2. Palpation: applying the fingers with firm pressure to the surface of the body 3. Auscultation: listening to the sounds that organs make 4. Percussion: tapping sharply on various locations on the thorax or abdomen to detect resonating vibrations © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Palpation Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Left to Right: Figure 1. The abdominal palpation using the four-quadrants. Figure 1 shows the light palpation. Figure 2. Vein palpation. The palpation of vein is done prior to venipuncture to select a suitable puncture site. In aid of this, a tourniquet is applied approximately 2 inches above the site. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Auscultation  Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Auscultation CARDIAC LANDMARKS  Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Auscultation LANDMARKS RESPIRATORY  Subspecialties or Branches of Anatomy Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Branch or Subspecialty Study of Embryology the first eight weeks of development following fertilization Developmental Biology the complete development of an individual from fertilization to death Cytology (Cell Biology) cellular structure and functions Histology (Microscopic) microscopic structure of tissues Gross (Macroscopic) structures that can be examined using the eye Systemic Anatomy structures of specific systems of the body (e.g., nervous system) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Subspecialties or Branches of Anatomy Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Branch or Subspecialty Study of Regional Anatomy specific regions of the body (e.g., head or chest) Surface Anatomy surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization and palpation (gentle touch) Imaging Anatomy internal body structures that can be viewed with techniques (e.g., x-ray) and technologies for clinical analysis and medical intervention Pathological Anatomy structural changes (gross to microscopic) associated with disease © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Defining Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Physiology (Greek: physio, “nature” + logos, “study of”) – Study of the function of the body – Subdivisions based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology) – Often focuses on cellular and molecular level Body's abilities depend on chemical reactions in individual cells – It also rests on principles of physics. – It has given birth to the disciplines of Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Neuroscience. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Subspecialties or Branches of Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Branch or Subspecialty Study of Molecular Physiology functions of individual molecules such as proteins and DNA Neurophysiology functional properties of nerve cells Endocrinology hormones and how they control body functions Cardiovascular functions of the heart and blood vessels Physiology Immunology body’s defenses against disease-causing agents © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Subspecialties or Branches of Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Branch or Subspecialty Study of Respiratory Physiology functions of the air passageways and lungs Renal Physiology functions of the kidneys Exercise Physiology changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity Pathophysiology functional changes associated with disease and aging © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Why should we study anatomy Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use and physiology together? of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Principle of Complementarity Anatomy and physiology are inseparable – Function always reflects structure – What a structure can do depends on its specific form. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Topic 1.2. MTCC 113 HUMAN Historical Background ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY with Pathophysiology  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Ancient Era: MESOPOTAMIA Liver: “guardianship of the soul and of the sentiments that make us men” or simply the seat of human emotions © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Ancient Era: EGYPTIANS perfection of embalming through mummification King Menes (a.k.a. King Narmer): a king-physician during the first Egyptian Dynasty who wrote what is thought to be the first manual on anatomy © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Ancient Era: CHINESE Interest of the human body was primarily philosophical Yin and Yang: blood was the conveyor of yang and the heart and vessels represented the yin Acupuncture: established to maintain the balance between the yin and yang; 365 precise meridian sites or vital points © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Grecian Period: Hippocrates (circa 400 B.C.) “Father of Medicine” memorialized in the Hippocratic Oath Humoral Theory of Body Organization: – Sanguine (Blood): Liver – Choler or Chole (Yellow Bile): Gallbladder – Melancholy (Black Bile): Spleen – Phlegm: Lungs Note: Imbalance of the four humors will result to disease. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Grecian Period: Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) “Father of Biology” and “Father of Comparative Anatomy” named the aorta and contrasted arteries and veins. wrote the first known account of embryology © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Grecian Period: Herophilus of Chalcedon (~325 B.C.) “Father of Anatomy” vivisection: dissection of living things his two monumental works were “On Anatomy” and “Of the Eyes”. Brain: seat of intelligence first to describe the lacteals first to distinguish nerves as either sensory or motor “butcher of men” © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Grecian Period: Erasistratus of Ceos/Chios (~300 B.C.) “Father of Physiology” observed the heart, vessels, brain, and cranial nerves believe that cranial nerves carried animal spirits and that muscles contracted because of distention by spirits © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Roman Period: Cornelius Celsus (30 B.C.–A.D. 30) Roman encyclopedist who crafted a compilation of eight-volume work entitled, “De re Medicina” enumerated the 4 cardinal signs of inflammation: – Redness – Heat – Swelling – Pain © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Roman Period: Claudius Galen (A.D. 130–201) “Prince of Physicians” the first experimental physiologist limited his anatomical descriptions to nonhuman animal dissections proved that arteries contained blood rather than pneuma (breath, spirit or soul) added “loss of function” as the fifth cardinal sign of inflammation proved that urine was produced in the kidneys © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Middle Ages: Mundinus or Mondino d’Luzzi (1276–1326) “restorer of anatomy” wrote the book, “Anatomia” which was the standard anatomical text (dissection guide) for over a century © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Renaissance: Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) the originator of cross-sectional anatomy Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) the “reformer of anatomy” and is often regarded as the “Father of Modern Anatomy” authored the book, “De Humani Corporis Fabrica” (1543) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. 17th and 18th Centuries: William Harvey (1628) physiologist whose contributions gave birth to experimental physiology blood circulation published “De Motu Cordis” or “On the Motion of the Heart” Michael Servetus discovered pulmonary circulation © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. 17th and 18th Centuries: Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1681) “Father of Protozoology” “Father of Microbiology” “Father of Microscopy” improved a simple microscope with great magnification (270X) thought that sperm contained a miniature human being, “homunculus” © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. 17th and 18th Centuries: Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) “Father of Histology” discovered capillary blood vessels and the histological structure of the spleen and kidneys © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. 19th Century Robert Hooke (1665) coined the term “cell” (L. cella) which means “small room, storeroom, or chamber” made improvements to the compound microscope (invented specimen stage, illuminator, coarse and fine focus controls) published the first comprehensive book of microscopy, “Micrographia”. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. 19th Century Matthias Schleiden (1838) and Theodor Schwann (1839) German botanist and zoologist credited for postulating the first and second tenets of cell theory: – Cells are the basic units of life. – All organisms are made up of cells. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. 19th Century Rudolf Virchow (1858) “Father of Modern Pathology” “Pope of Medicine” German pathologist who introduced the third tenet of cell theory: – All cells arise from preexisting cells. [Omnis cellula e cellula] wrote the book, “Cellular Pathology” which was regarded as the root of modern pathology © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The History of Anatomy and Physiology Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. 19th Century Claude Bernard (1854–1878) “Father of Modern Physiology” introduced the idea of “milieu intérieur” or internal environment which must be kept stable for cells to function correctly. proposed the foundation of the concept of homeostasis. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Name the scientist(s) associated Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. with the following phrases: 1. blood circulation 2. “De Humani Corporis Fabrica” 3. the restorer of anatomy 4. prince of physicians 5. cranial nerves carried animal spirits 6. butcher of men 7. four humors 8. cell theory 9. first manual on anatomy 10.loss of function © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Topic 1.3. MTCC 113 HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY with Pathophysiology Levels of Structural Organization  The Levels of Structural Organization Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. INCREASING COMPLEXITY Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Blood vessel (organ) Heart Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Smooth muscle tissue Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Atoms Molecule Smooth muscle cell Organismal Organ system level level Organ systems consist The human Organelle of different organs that organism is made Chemical level Cellular level work together closely. up of many organ Atoms combine to form molecules. Cells are made up of systems. molecules. SUBMICROSCOPIC LEVEL MICROSCOPIC LEVEL MACROSCOPIC LEVEL © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Growth Digestion Movement Metabolism Reproduction Responsiveness Dispose of wastes Basic Life Processes Maintaining boundaries  Basic Life Processes Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments – Plasma membranes – Skin Movement (contractility) – Of body parts (skeletal muscle) – Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Basic Life Processes Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Responsiveness – Ability to sense & respond to stimuli – Withdrawal reflex – Control of breathing rate Digestion – Breakdown of ingested food – Absorption of simple molecules into blood © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Basic Life Processes Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Metabolism – All chemical reactions that occur in body cells – Catabolism and anabolism Excretion – Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion – Urea, carbon dioxide, feces © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Basic Life Processes Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Reproduction – Cellular division for growth or repair – Production of offspring Growth – Increase in size of a body part or of organism © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  Basic Life Processes Digestive System Respiratory System Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use Food O2 CO2 of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Humans are multicellular Cardiovascular System – To function, must keep individual cells alive Blood CO2 O2 – All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival Nutrients Heart needs Urinary System Organ systems cooperate to maintain life – Note major organs and interstitial fluid functions of the 11 organ systems Feces Integumentary Urine © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. System  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Integumentary System Hair Forms the external body covering and Skin Nails protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones Bones store minerals. Joint © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Muscular System Skeletal muscles Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture and produces heat. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Nervous System Brain As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by acting appropriate muscles and glands. Spinal Nerves cord © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Pineal gland Endocrine System Pituitary Thyroid gland gland Glands secrete hormones that Thymus regulate processes such as growth, Adrenal reproduction, and nutrient use gland (metabolism) by body cells. Pancreas Testis Ovary © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Cardiovascular System Heart Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood. Blood vessels © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Red bone Lymphatic System / Immunity marrow Thymus Picks up fluid leaked from blood Lymphatic vessels vessels and returns it to blood. Thoracic duct Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Spleen Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. Lymph nodes The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Nasal cavity Respiratory System Pharynx Bronchus Keeps blood constantly supplied with Larynx Trachea oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur Lung through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Oral cavity Digestive System Esophagus Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Liver Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated Stomach Small as feces. Intestine Large Intestine Rectum Anus © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Kidney Regulates water, electrolyte and acid- Ureter base balance of the blood. Urinary bladder Urethra © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Male Reproductive System Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex Prostate gland hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female Penis Ductus reproductive tract. Testis deferens Scrotum © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  The Organ Systems Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Female Reproductive System Mammary glands (in Ovaries produce egg cells and female breasts) sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and Ovary development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts Uterus Uterine produce milk to nourish the newborn. tube Vagina © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Topic 1.4. MTCC 113 HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY with Pathophysiology Anatomical & Physiological Variation  Anatomical Variation Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Variation in Number of Organs Variation in Organ Locations – Situs solitus – Situs perversus – Situs ambiguous – Situs inversus Physiological Variations Age, sex, diet, weight, physical activity, race © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.  References Disclaimer: The information provided herein are for instructional purposes only. Any use of this material beyond the intended purpose is at the discretion of the user. Cohen, B. J., & Jones, S. A. (2021). Medical terminology: an illustrated guide (9th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. Marieb, E. N., & Keller, S. M. (2022). Essentials of human anatomy & physiology (13th ed.). Pearson Education South Asia. Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2016). Human anatomy & physiology (11th ed.). Pearson Education Limited. Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2017). Principles of anatomy & physiology (15th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. Van De Graaff, K. M. (2001). Human anatomy (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.