Human Anatomy Notes PDF

Homeostasis: - Environment around body cells should remain constant - Dynamic Equilibrium ○ Stages: Variable - Sensor - Integrator - Effector - Autoregulation Extrinsic regulation - Body dynamically adjusts - Normal set point value of blood glucose is 90...

Homeostasis: - Environment around body cells should remain constant - Dynamic Equilibrium ○ Stages: Variable - Sensor - Integrator - Effector - Autoregulation Extrinsic regulation - Body dynamically adjusts - Normal set point value of blood glucose is 90 Homeostatic Control: Set point - desired value Sensor Cells/Receptor - detect and react to any changes Integrator/Control center - information is analyzed and integrated and then, if needed a specific action is initiated Effector - responds to control center to oppose or enhance the stimulus. Negative Feedback: Inhibitory Stabilizes variables Produces an action that is opposite to the change that activated the system Temperature regular of blood CO(2) regulation of glucose levels Positive Feedback Stimulatory Amplifies or reinforcing the change that is occuring Produces destabilizing effects and disrupt homeostasis EX: Sneezing, Blood Clotting, Nursing, Labor and delivery Levels of Organization: Integumentary - Skin - Hair - Sweat glands - Nails Functions: Protects against environmental hazards, Helps regulate body temperature and Provides Sensory information Skeletal - Bones - Carillages - Associated Ligaments - Bone Marrow Functions: Provides support and protection for other tissues, Stores calcium and other minerals and Forms blood cells Muscular: - Skeletal muscle - Associated tendons Functions: Provides movement, Provides protection and support for other tissues and Generates heat that maintains body temperature Nervous: - Brain - Spinal Cord - Peripheral nerves - Sense organs Functions: Directs immediate responses to stimuli, Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems and Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions Body Cavities Two main cavities ○ Dorsal body cavity Divided into Cranial Cavity and Spinal Cavity Formed by skull Contains the brain Formed by vertebrae Contains spinal cord ○ Ventral Body Cavity Divided into Thoracic Cavity and Abdominopelvic Cavity separated by Diaphragm Thoracic Cavity can be divided into 3 other cavities (Left pleural cavity, Right pleural cavity and Pericardial Cavity). Separated by Mediastinum Abdominopelvic cavity can be divided into two different Cavities, the Abdominal cavity and Pelvis cavity ○ Abdominal Cavity Contains the Stomach, liver, spleen, Kidneys, small intestine and most large intestines ○ Pelvic Cavity contains bladder and Internal reproductive organs Anatomical directional terms  Anatomical position ○ Face forward ○ Arms at the sides ○ Palms face forward ○ Feet point forward ○ (Same View of the body = less confusion Superior ○ Towards the head (upper or above EX: The Heart is located superior to the small intestine Inferior ○ Toward the feet (Lower or below) EX: The Small Intestine is located inferior to the heart Anterior/Ventral ○ Further to the front (in front of) EX: Sternum is anterior to the heart Posterior/Dorsal ○ Further to the back (In back of) EX: the heart is posterior to the sternum Medial ○ Toward the midline of the body EX: The heart lies medial to the lungs Lateral ○ Toward the side of the body EX: The lungs lie lateral to the heart Proximal ○ Close to the axial body (toward the trunk) EX: The thigh is proximal to the foot Distal ○ Further from the axial body (further from the trunk) EX: The foot is distal to the thigh Superficial ○ Closer to the surface of the body EX: The sternum is superficial to the lungs Deep ○ Further from the surface of the body EX: The lungs are deep to the sternum Prone ○ Facing down EX: The Soldier is in Prone position Supine ○ Facing up EX: His hands are supine when holding soup Transverse plane ○ Half of the body starting at the waist  EX: Cut the mange in a transverse plane Frontal Plane ○ Divides body into a front and back half EX:: Cut the mango in a frontal plane Sagittal Plane ○ Cut directly in half which gives midline EX: Cut the Mango in a Sagittal Plane Midline ○ Line Across the middle EX: Did he draw the midline of the laptop? Medial ○ Towards the Midline EX: Is the cut in Medial position Lateral ○ Away from the midline EX: is the cut in Lateral position? Positive and Negative Feedback Negative Feedback Control loops ○ Help the body maintain homeostasis (Stable environment) EX: When body temperature drops between Set point range, which will cause the body to shiver. Which produces heat. EX: When Body temperature is high between Set point range, which will cause the body to sweat. Which cools you down. Positive Feedback Control loops ○ Do not help maintain homeostasis (Stable environment) ○ Amplify the change EX: If you have harmful bacteria, it tells your body to have a higher temperature set point which causes a fever Set point range ○ Normal range the body tries to stay within Abdominopelvic regions Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Region ○ Liver and Stomach Left Hypochondriac ○ Spleen Right Lumbar Umbilical Region ○ Gallbladder Large Intestine, Small Intestine Left Lumbar  Right Inguinal Hypogastric region ○ Appendix and Urinary bladder Left Inguinal UNIT 2: Basic Chemistry Only 1 in # ○ H, C , O More than 1 in # ○ H(20, O(3) Cannot be broken down into or more different substances ○ O(2), H(2) Atoms of two or more elements joined to form chemical combinations ○ H(2)O,C(6)H(12)O(6),CO(2) Dehydration Synthesis to remove and make bigger molecules Electronegativity is when a Atom is closer to being full than a element than its not. As you go to right more the element gets electronegative. Attraction are called hydrogen bonds since they want to pair with negative or positive elements ○ REsults from unequal charge distribution on molecules ○ Polar ○ Weaker than ionic or covalent bonds Nonpolar covalent bonds are song ○ Polar covalent bonds are stronger than Different Type of chemical reactions Exothermic, dissolving of heat and Endothermic opposite of that An Acid is any substance that increase H+ concentration of a Solution A base is any substance that reduce the H+ concentration of a Solution ○ EX: HOH + NaCL Change the shape, change the function / Temperature, measurement of the energy level. High level = kinetic energy Stabilize pH by removing or replacing H^+ ions ○ Helps us keep the set point the same ○ Protons are sensors (EX: Alka Seltzer) Acids: Bases: Release H+ Remove H+ Raises pH Lowers pH Proton Acceptors Proton Donors EX: HCI Unit 3: Cellular Level Of Organization Structure ○ Names and Location ○ Anatomy ○ Often memorized Function ○ What it does ○ Physiology CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION.Prokaryotic Cells: ○ Cells without a nucleus; examples include bacteria. Eukaryotic Cells: ○ Cells with a nucleus; found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. Nucleus: ○ Organelle containing genetic material (DNA). Cytoplasm: ○ Gel-like substance filling the cell, holding organelles in place. Plasma Membrane: ○ Cell membrane that controls entry and exit of substances. Cell Wall: ○ Rigid outer layer in plant, fungi, and some bacterial cells. Ribosomes: ○ Produce proteins; found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): ○ Transports materials; smooth ER (lipid synthesis) and rough ER (protein synthesis). Golgi Apparatus: ○ Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport. Mitochondria: ○ Powerhouse of the cell; site of cellular respiration. Chloroplasts: ○ Site of photosynthesis in plant cells. Lysosomes:  ○ Digestive enzymes that break down waste and cell debris. Vacuoles: ○ Storage sacs for nutrients, water, and waste. Cytoskeleton: ○ Provides structure and helps in cell movement. Microtubules: ○ Part of the cytoskeleton; help in cell division and shape. Microfilaments: ○ Thin protein strands involved in cell movement. Centrioles: ○ Aid in cell division in animal cells. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): ○ Genetic material in the nucleus. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): ○ Plays a role in protein synthesis. Chromosomes: ○ Condensed DNA structures during cell division. Mitosis: ○ Division of a eukaryotic cell nucleus, forming two identical cells. Meiosis: ○ Cell division that results in four unique gametes (sex cells). Diffusion: ○ Movement of particles from high to low concentration. Osmosis: ○ Diffusion of water across a membrane. Active Transport: ○ Movement of molecules against a concentration gradient, requiring energy. Endocytosis: ○ Process of taking in substances by engulfing them. Exocytosis: ○ Process of expelling substances from the cell. Cell Signaling: ○ Communication between cells via chemical signals. Tissue: ○ Group of cells working together to perform a function. Homeostasis: ○ Cells maintain a stable internal environment. Types of Tissues Tissue that supports, binds, or separates other tissues and organs Extracellular matrix: ○ network of fibers and ground substance outside cells, providing support Fibroblasts:  ○ cells that produce fibers in connective tissue Collagen fibers: ○ strong, flexible fibers providing strength and structure Elastic fibers: ○ stretchy fibers that allow tissues to return to shape Reticular fibers: ○ thin fibers forming a supportive mesh Loose connective tissue: ○ cushions organs and stores fluids Dense connective tissue: c ○ contains tightly packed fibers; found in tendons and ligaments Adipose tissue: f ○ at storage tissue providing insulation and cushioning Cartilage: f ○ firm, flexible tissue that supports structures like the nose and ears Bone: ○ rigid tissue forming the skeleton, providing support and protection Blood: ○ fluid connective tissue transporting oxygen, nutrients, and waste Hyaline cartilage: ○ smooth, glassy cartilage covering joints Elastic cartilage: ○ flexible cartilage found in the ear and epiglottis Functions: ○ protection, support, binding tissues, energy storage, and transportation Simple epithelium: ○ single layer of cells, allowing easy diffusion and absorption Stratified epithelium: ○ multiple layers, providing protection Squamous cells: ○ flat, thin cells allowing easy movement of substances Cuboidal cells: ○ cube-shaped cells involved in secretion and absorption Columnar cells: ○ tall, column-shaped cells that absorb and secrete substances Simple squamous epithelium: ○ thin layer for diffusion; found in alveoli and blood vessels Simple cuboidal epithelium: ○ lines glands and kidney tubules Simple columnar epithelium: ○ ines the stomach and intestines for absorption Stratified squamous epithelium: ○ multiple layers for protection, like in the skin Pseudostratified epithelium:  ○ appears layered but is not; lines respiratory tract Transitional epithelium: ○ can stretch; found in the bladder Cilia: ○ hair-like structures that move substances along surfaces Tissue responsible for movement in the body Skeletal muscle: ○ voluntary muscle attached to bones, enabling movement Smooth muscle: ○ involuntary muscle in organs, controlling movement in the digestive system, blood vessels, etc. Cardiac muscle: ○ involuntary muscle in the heart, responsible for pumping blood Striations: ○ striped appearance in skeletal and cardiac muscles due to fiber arrangement Myofibrils: ○ long strands within muscle cells that contract Voluntary muscle control: ○ control of movement by conscious effort (skeletal muscle) Involuntary muscle control: ○ automatic movement (smooth and cardiac muscle) Intercalated discs: ○ specialized connections in cardiac muscle for synchronized contractions Functions: ○ movement, posture, heat production, and heartbeat Muscle fiber: ○ individual muscle cell; long, cylindrical, and multinucleated in skeletal muscle Tendons: ○ connect skeletal muscles to bones Smooth muscle locations: ○ found in blood vessels, intestines, and other organs Unit 3: Integumentary System Epidermis ○ Thin Dermis ○ Thick Hypodermis ○ Anchors skin to deeper tissues Sweat Glands, ○ If its to hot  Arrector pill muscle ○ Tightins (goosebumps) and make all your hairs stand up. EX: Logan swim jacket coated with fur which cushions of warm air around you Skin is an organ ○ Make up 16% of ones total body weight Melanin gives skin color ○ Genetic determines how much melanin you make Keratin ○ Waterproofs the skin so no water can be absorbed Keratinocytes ○ Makes keratin ○ Make sup several layers of tough, fibrous protection that waterproofs skin Melanocytes ○ Makes melanin ○ Filter out UV light and contributes to skin color Dendrite cells ○ Find foreign antigens and presents them to other immune cells for recognition and destruction Epidermis Layers Stratum corneum (Horny layer) ○ Composed of dead, expendable squamous cells ○ Desmosomes hold adjacent cells together so skin layers are in sheets ○ Barriers from water, trauma and ETC (microorganism) ○ 15-30 layers of keratinized cells ○ Insensible perspective, sensible perspiration and oil mixed with sloughed cells provide Stratum lucidum (Clear Layer) ○ Cells are flattened, densely packed without organelles and filled with keratin ○ Layer is absent in think skin , but apparent in palms and soles of feet Stratum granulosum (Granular Layer) ○ Has enzymes bec cells here are starting to degenerate but can still make keratin ○ May be missing in some regions of thin skin Stratum spinosum (spiny layer) ○ Keratinocytes are bound together by desmosomes ○ Dendrite cells stimulate defense against microorganism and superficial skin cancers Stratum basale/ germinativum (base layer) ○ Weave int basement membrane and areolar tissues of dermis ○ Basal cells or germinative (stem) cells to replaced superficial keratinocytes ○ Sensitive to touch releasing chemical to stimulate other nerves ○ Contains melanocytes Intercellular Junctions Tight junctions ○ Forms belt around cells preventing leakage of extracellular fluid Desmosomes  ○ Function likes rivets, gluing cells together Gap junctions ○ Channels between cells allowing communication of ions, etc0 Strata of Dermis Papillary Layer ○ Areolar tissue ○ Contains capillaries, lymphatic vessels and sensory nerves ○ Dermal papillae Give us fingerprints (frictions ridges) Allow us to grip and not slip Reticular layer ○ Collagenous fibers (leather) give toughness to skin ○ Some elastic fibers allow skin to rebound ○ Smooth muscle of arrector pili causes goosebumps ○ Has nerves and blood vessels which (constrict and dilate) Need Calcium for Nerves and blood coating Melanin ○ Pheomelanin(Badish) and Eumelanin(Good) Vitiligo - ○ where areas of the skin are not producing enough melanin than there are patches Burns and the Rules of 9’s If the body is dived into 11 parts of 9% 1st degree - minor discomfort, red skin, superficial epidermis 2nd degree - severe, blistering scarring, epidermis and upper dermis 3rd degree - insensitive after injury, follicles sweat glands, epidermis Age changes Youth - Skin heals quickly, elasticity, Layer of Fat under (smooth), Sweat glands are not at optimum efficiency, therefore get red-faced to dissipate heat Adulthood @ puberty - Sweat glands = body order , sebaceous gland therefore skin is oiler Elderly - Sweat - less adaptable in warm temperature, seabecause skin and hair are less resilient, gray hair since malnin Cancer Benign - Slow growing, does not spread Malignant - Develops quickly, spreads near and far (invasive) Basal cell carcinoma  ○ Account for more than 90% of cases ○ Least serious because it is slow to grow and spread Squamous cell carcinoma ○ Is more serious because it can spreads more readily to other organs Malignant Melanoma ○ Most serious because it spreads quickly (Least common)( Tonsils Pharnagel (adenoids) ○ Palatine ○ Lingual Protections against invaders that may enter via the mouth or nose Misc: IF Chronic infection the tonsillectomy Thymus Location: in mediastinum, inferior to thyroid Structure: largest a 2 year old. It invoultes as one ages Function: Final state of lymphocyte dev’ before birth Thymosin matures T Cells Spleen Location: inferior diaphragm, posterior to fundus of stomach, superior to left kidney. Structure: arteries send blood through areas of developing lymphocytes then blood collects in venous sinuses and returns to the heart Function - Defense, Hematopoiesis, RBC destruction, PLatelet destruction, Blood reservoir Misc: Splenectomy (Removal of Spleen`) Immunity Innate - Born with it ○ Rapid Response 1st Barriers: Skin, Mucous, 2nd Internal: Phagocytic cells, Antimicrobial Proteins, Inflammatory response natural killer cells Acquired - Immunity eventually in life ○ Slower Response 3rd: Humoral response - Antibodies against infection in body fluids Cell mediated response - Cytotoxic lymphocytes defend against infection in body cells Barriers Skin, mucous membranes, respiratory, urinary, w/ epithelial tissue (Stratified squamous, ciliated pseudo strat. w/ goblet cells) Lysozymes in mucus, tears, saliva Acid in stomach (pH 2) & from oil and sweat glands (pH 3-5) Internal Defenses  Leukocyes (AKA WBC) recognizes pathogens, Capable of phagocytosis, non specifically eats any invader ○ Typical include: Neutrophils - From blood, travels to infected tissue (chemotaxis) self destruct as they destoy Develops into macrophages ( big eaters) (Eosinophils, Lymphocytes, Basophils) Natural Killer (NK) Cells; ○ Destroy infected and abnormal w/o class 1 MHC (marker) EX: MHC Is like CST looking at ID which is our class 1. AntiMicrobial Proteins Complement Systems: ○ 30 protein cascade leading to cell lysis ○ Will circulate inactive state but will active with microbial proteins ○ The proteins help with the pore unless there is a complement proteins, Letter Y proteins are proteins which trigger other proteins with trigger proteins to help with the pores Interrons: ○ Virus-infected cells secretes these and nearby cells produce substance that inhibit viral report ○ Enhance macrophages phagocytic ability Acquired Immunity - Lymphocytes ○ B lymphocytes (Fr. Bone marrow) and T lymphocytes (fr. Thymus) B cells Look like letter YA Orginates from Strem cells in bone marrow or liver of feature Circulates in blood and lymph Concentrated in spleen, lymph nodes and lymphatic tissue ○ Antigens: Foreign molecules - viruses, bacteria, pollen, transplanted tissue, etc ○ Anti-bodies: Produced ny B Cells in response to antigens that elicit a specific response Acquired Immunity - Miscellaneous ○ Primary Immune response 1st exposure to ○ Secondary immune response 2nd exposure; faster, strong and more effective ○ Based on memory cells - long lived cells bearing receptors specific for an antigen after primary response Macrophase eat whatever is binded with the Anti Bodies ○ Something sort of a tag which tells them what to eat and what not to eat (IRL example: Kind of like a slaughterhouse Complement system help fill out pores Goldilocks Principle’