Lecture Notes on Classical Theories of Child Development (PDF)

Classical theories of child development Course: Developmental Psychology: Childhood and youth University of Europe for Applied Sciences Berlin Dr. Costanza De Simone October 23rd 2024  WHAT WE’LL LEARN THIS WEEK 1. The Long Way Toward Child Development as a Sci...

Classical theories of child development Course: Developmental Psychology: Childhood and youth University of Europe for Applied Sciences Berlin Dr. Costanza De Simone October 23rd 2024  WHAT WE’LL LEARN THIS WEEK 1. The Long Way Toward Child Development as a Science 2. Theories in Child Development 2.1 Psychodynamic Approaches 2.2 Learning Approaches 2.3 Cognitive Approaches 2.4 Contextual Approaches 2.5 Evolutionary Approaches 2  2.2 Learning Approaches Emphasize our experiences and interactions with the world Development is continuous, rather than occurring in stages Suggest that it is our environment that shapes us “I could take any one out of 12 infants at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities…” (Watson, 1925, p. 14). A. Behaviorism B. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 3  2.2 Learning Approaches (A) Behaviorism focuses observable behavior Posits that humans are passive learners that react to their environment and that thoughts and feelings do not play a crucial role in learning Behavior is changed through two processes: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning 4  Classical Conditioning: A neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) is paired with another stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) to elicit a reaction As a result of the pairing, the individual learns to respond to the neutral stimulus alone First studied by Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) in experiments with dogs Conditioned stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response 5 John B. Watson (1878-1958) first researcher to systematically apply the principles of classical conditioning to children “Little Albert” study 6 FIGURE 2.1 In classical conditioning, a person learns to react to a neutral stimulus that previously did not evoke any reaction. When Anna was 6 years old, she was bitten by a dog in her neighborhood. She instantly developed a fear of all dogs, including dogs she saw on television. A child therapist later used classical conditioning to help Anna overcome the fear. How did classical conditioning work to create her fear of dogs, and what kinds of strategies might her therapist have used to help her overcome her fear? 8 Operant Conditioning Developed by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) form of learning in which the consequences of an activity (positive or negative) determine the likelihood that the individual will continue to engage in the activity 9  Positive Reinforcement an event that strengthens behavior by providing a positive Reinforcement consequence when a particular an event that increases the behavior is performed probability that a behavior will be repeated Negative Reinforcement an event that strengthens behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus from a situation following a positive behavior 10 Punishment an unpleasant consequence of a behavior (or no consequence) decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated 11 Table 2.2 Two Kinds of Reinforcement An action that...... is called Example... increases the likelihood that reinforcement behavior will be repeated Positive reinforcement Darius gets a sticker after doing chores (positive consequence) Negative reinforcement Jasmine can leave the dinner table (a (removal of a negative negative stimulus for her) to play after she stimulus) eats her vegetables... decreases the likelihood that punishment When Mischa whines, her mother gives behavior will be repeated her extra chores to do Behavior Modification uses principles of operant conditioning form of behavior therapy with the goal to increase positive behaviors and decrease negative behaviors 13  Criticisms of Behaviorism Classical and operant conditioning have been criticized because they portray individuals as passively reacting to the environment without thinking or processing what is happening in any significant way Despite these criticisms, behaviorism has contributed a great deal to scientists’ ability to explain and predict behavior 14 Archer does not do well academically, and his parents are also increasingly having trouble with him at home. He tends not to listen when they request any number of things, from putting his dirty clothes in the laundry basket to staying sat the dinner table for the duration of the meal. What recommendations about behaviour modification would you make to his parents? 15  2.2 Learning Approaches (B) Social Cognitive Theory Albert Bandura (1925-2021) based his social cognitive theory on the idea that children learn through experiences (much like operant conditioning) He believed that: thinking plays an important role in learning learning is not always observable we learn through interaction with others 16 Modeling also called observational learning a form of learning that occurs through observation of others Children actively choose the models they observe and imitate usually people with power or status (like adults or older children) people whose behavior is rewarded Children decide which behavior to imitate by observing the consequences of the model’s behavior they do not need to experience the consequences themselves before adopting (or deciding not to adopt the behavior) 17 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (V1, 1961) N = Thirty-six boys and 36 girls; Between group comaprison: ⅓ watched a video of an adult model acting violently towards a Bobo doll, Another ⅓ watched a non-aggressive model, and The nal ⅓ did not see footage of any model. IV: Observation of children’s play with dolls Result: Children in 1st group were more likely to hit the doll! 18 fi Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (V2, 1965) Vicarious reinforcement: Observing someone else receiving a reward or punishment increases imitation, particularly when the gender is matched 19 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961) 20 Bandura’s theory and social media… 21  2.3 Cognitive Approaches Explain human behavior in terms of mental processes, such as: thinking reasoning perception A. Piaget’s cognitive theory B. Information Processing C. Cognitive Neuroscience 22 2.3 Cognitive Approaches (A) Jean Piaget (1896-1980) became interested in child development when he began conducting research on intelligence in children particularly interested in children’s wrong answers believed children progress through 4 different stages each stage is qualitatively different from the one that comes before or after 23  Concrete Formal Sensorimotor Preoperational operational operational Birth – 2 years 2-7 years 7-11 years 11 years and Infants learn Children Logical up about and cannot think thinking Children are explore their logically and begins, but is capable of environment have trouble limited to abstract mostly by seeing the direct reasoning and means of their world from experiences logical senses and other people’s thinking motor perspective activities 24 Equilibrium mental balance in which children can explain new experiences and ideas with their existing knowledge achieved through the process of assimilation and accommodation drives learning 25 Adaptation used as a means to return to a state of equilibrium a reaction to new experiences and information consists of assimilation and accommodation Assimilation the process by which new information is incorporated into existing thinking and schemata Accommodation modification of existing schemata because new information of experiences does not fit those schemata 26 FIGURE 2.2 Adaptation: A child adapts to new information and experiences by assimilation or accommodation. Table 2.3 Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory Sensorimotor Stage: birth–2 years DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS Infants learn by exploring the world with their Children explore by touching and putting Provide safe space and safe objects for children to explore by senses and motor activities. objects in mouth. touching, mouthing, and moving around. Learning builds on reflexes (schemata). Give children opportunities to explore different senses and object properties: cold and warm water, rough and smooth Object permanence (objects continue to exist Children will search for an item hidden while fabric, differently colored or sized objects, different sounds. even when out of sight) they watch. Play with children and let them safely explore cause and Deferred imitation (time lag between Children will observe a sibling make a block effect even when they repeatedly throw or push objects. observation and reproduction of tower and try to stack blocks themselves Give children opportunities to develop their motor skills and © Chubykin Arkady/ behavior) the next day. learn how to move and coordinate their bodies; this is also a Shutterstock.com way for them Children begin to think about objects even to learn about the world. Beginning of symbolic thinking when the objects are absent. The sensorimotor stage has six substages: 1. inborn reflexes (birth–1 month) Children will suck when a nipple is placed in their mouth. 2. primary circular reactions → adjust Children placing a finger in the mouth by reflexes and repeat them (1–4 months) accident will start sucking and then try to repeat finger sucking. 3. secondary circular reactions → actions Children can shake a rattle. involve objects (4–8 months) 4. goal-directed behavior combining Children can push a pillow away to reach a schemata (8–12 months) rattle. 5. tertiary circular reactions → change Children will bang different objects together combinations of schemata to explore and on floor to explore sounds. environment (12–18 months) 6. symbolic thought → mentally represent Children can anticipate the noise banged objects (18–24 months) objects will make and chooses the object that makes the loudest sound. Table 2.3 (Continued) Preoperational Stage: 2–7 years DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS Egocentric thinking (no ability to take the Children assume others know what Children personalize events that have nothing to do perspective of others) they know. with them. When critical life events happen, make sure they don’t blame themselves for occurrences. Pretend play Children cook food for their dolls. Provide children with opportunities to practice real- world procedures like shopping, cooking, etc. No conservation (understanding that changing the Children believe they have more money Give children opportunities to play with materials like appearance of something does not change its when coins are spread out as clay or water to understand and practice concepts like quantity) opposed to close together. conservation and reversibility. © iStock.com/wsphotos No class inclusion (ability to classify objects by taking Children can consider apples and pears as more than one feature into account) two different groups but do not understand that at the same time they’re both fruit. No reversibility (ability to remember steps of Children are confused by the idea that if reasoning or mentally reverse actions) you can count forward you can also count backward. Concrete Operational Stage: 7–11 years DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS Beginning of logical thinking helps children Abstract concepts like fractions are hard Use hands-on learning whenever possible: Discover understand concepts like reversibility, but this to understand unless presented with fractions by slicing pizza, create timelines of events, or understanding is limited to “concrete” real-world conduct experiments. pictures or manipulatives because 1/4 is situations. Ask open-ended questions to stimulate creative thinking more than 1/8, although 8 is a larger and explore topics in more depth. number than 4. Reassure child that mistakes are part of learning rather Children begin to take the perspective of others. Children understand that a than something to be ashamed of. grandparent on the phone cannot ©Chekyravaa/ Shutterstock.com see the toy they’re holding. Children understand class inclusion (objects belong Children understand that brown and to more than one group at once). white teddy bears all belong to the group of teddy bears. Table 2.3 (Continued) Children understand transitivity (infer Children can solve riddles like this: If Ahmed is relationship between two objects by knowing taller than their relationships with a third object). Lily, and Lily is taller than Zane, who is the tallest? Children can understand more complex math by Children understand that, since 8 + 7 = 15, using reversibility, seriation, and 15 – 7 must be 8 (reversibility). classification. Children also understand that 8 is more than 7 (seriation) and that all numbers from 400 to 499 are in the 400s (classification). Formal-Operational Stage: 11 years and up DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS Abstract thought Teens can think about the future and imagine Provide teenagers the space to try out themselves in different professions. different interests and consider different future life scenarios, including postsecondary schools, places to live, and professions. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning (develop When presented with a calculation and test hypotheses to solve problems) spreadsheet that does not work, teens can Remember that children develop at very systematically try out different options to find different rates, so teenagers’ abilities for the mistake. formal-operational thought may differ significantly. They may also not be able to use their new © iStock.com/fstop123 Mental trial and error Teens who have broken a dish can consider thinking skills when stressed or emotionally and evaluate different ways of presenting the aroused. news. Symbolic thinking Teens will understand proverbs, puns, and sarcasm and solve algebraic equations with letters standing in for unknown numbers. A typical child on Piaget’s conservation task 31  2.3 Cognitive Approaches (B) Information Processing liken the human mind to a computer both receive input store information carry out operations generate Output Views development as continuous rather than progressing through as a sequence of steps As children mature, their processes become more efficient and they have a wider variety of strategies to process information at their disposal 32 33  2.3 Cognitive Approaches (C) Cognitive Neuroscience studies the brain and the neural mechanisms that form the basis of human cognition Researchers use various methods to measure activity in the brain Electroencephalography (EEG) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Using these methods, researchers ask participants to engage in different activities while their brain activity is recorded 34  2.5 Cognitive Approaches 9 Enables us to take a peek into the working brain Can identify the functions of different parts of the brain Can investigate the way the brain can reassign functions to different brain parts in people with brain injuries called plasticity Criticized because this approach tends to describe rather than explain brain functioning 35 36  2.4 Contextual Approaches Contextual Approaches emphasize the importance of the environment in which children grow up Environment or context may include the people the children interact with the culture that surrounds them past or current events A. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory B. Brofenbrenner’s Ecological System 37  2.4 Contextual Approaches (A) Sociocultural Theory Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) believed that interactions with others play a fundamental role in learning firmly believed that interactions are always dependent on culture 38 Zone of Proximal Development describes anything the child cannot yet do alone but can do with assistance as children grow up and learn new skills, they build upon the skills they already have and try to extend them by learning something new that is just beyond their grasp scaffolds a temporary aid used to assist children in the acquisition of new skills 39 Table 2.4 Differences between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Views of Development Piaget Vygotsky How do children learn? Children act like scientists and learn on their own. Children are social beings and learn from interaction with others. What do they learn? All over the world, children learn many of the same What children learn is highly dependent on their culture. things, such as how to take the perspective of others and how to think logically. What is the learning Learning occurs in a series of stages that all children Learning is largely continuous. process? go through.  2.4 Contextual Approaches (B) Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) believed that development is influenced by interactions between children and their environment suggests that there are 5 different kinds of ecosystems that shape development Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem 41 Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem A child’s immediate Interactions of all the different Influences that do not directly environment microsystems interact with children but still For example: family, friends, For example: parents can have an impact on their lives teachers, neighborhood influence the school setting For example: the parents’ workplace Macrosystem Chronosystem Cultural values and beliefs as Significant events happening well as economic and political before or during a person’s systems lifetime that influences development 42 FIGURE 2.3 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory proposes five different ecosystems that influence children’s development. 2.6 Contextual Approaches 6  2.5 Evolutionary Approaches Originate from Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection suggests that those individuals who survive and reproduce most successfully are the ones who are best adapted to their environment Evolutionary approaches recognize two basic drives – survival and reproduction – influence the physical as well as psychological traits we find in humans today Asks how a particular trait helped people survive or reproduce 44 45 Evolutionary approaches draw on the field of ethology Ethology the study of animal (including human) behavior and how it is influenced by genetics and evolution Behavioral Genetics attempts to identify the impact of genetics and environmental factors on behavior 46 Table 2.5 Overview of Approaches and Theories in Child Development Emphasis: Continuous environment or development or Theory Core ideas Examples for application interaction between stages? genes & environment PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES Psychoanalytic theory Unconscious thoughts Provide infants with pacifier to satisfy oral Interaction 5 Stages (Freud) and drives regulate sucking need. development Provide preschoolers with safe place (and appropriate explanations) to explore sexuality; teach parents that masturbation in young children is normal. Psychosocial theory Identity crises that reflect Use stages to guide interactions with Interaction 8 Stages (Erikson) our connectedness with children. For example: others and society at Preschool phase (initiative vs. guilt): large drive development Find out children’s interests and create projects in that area. Praise and offer feedback. Middle childhood (industry vs. inferiority): Emphasize learning from mistakes rather than perfection. Encourage children to focus on and acknowledge their strengths. LEARNING APPROACHES Classical conditioning Learning occurs through Behavior therapy for phobias (irrational Environment Continuous (Pavlov, Watson) the pairing of a neutral fear of something): teach relaxation while stimulus with an exposing to progressively more stressful unconditioned stimulus. stimuli (e.g., relaxation while bringing a spider closer and closer to patient). Commercials: present product with attractive model. Table 2.5 (Continued) Operant The consequences of our Use rewards (reinforcement) in Environment Continuous conditioning actions determine the toilet training. (Skinner) likelihood that behavior will Adapt rewards to age and be repeated again. preferences of child. Social cognitive theory Learning through Model tooth brushing and Interaction Continuous (Bandura) observation and have child imitate actions. imitation of others Model conflict resolution when siblings argue. COGNITIVE APPROACHES Cognitive- developmental Learning occurs through Adapt teaching to Interaction 4 Stages theory (Piaget) adaptation: child’s cognitive (a) integration of new stage. information in current Provide hands-on knowledge (assimilation) or experiences to explore. (b) adjustment of current Teach at child’s level, using knowledge examples that reflect child’s to new information experiences. (accommodation). Information- processing Development occurs as Provide children with Interaction Continuous approaches children become more strategies that help efficient at information memorize facts. processing. Help young children focus by minimizing distractions and providing frequent breaks. Teach problem-solving strategies. Table 2.5 (Continued) Emphasis: environment Continuous development or interaction between or stages? Theory Core ideas Examples for application genes & environment CONTEXTUAL APPROACHES Sociocultural theory Learning occurs through social Challenge children within Environment Continuous (Vygotsky) interaction. their zone of proximal development. Let children of different ages cooperate so they can help each other. Provide appropriate scaffolds (e.g., when teaching how to ride a bike first use training wheels, then take them off and run alongside child). Ecological systems theory Learning is influenced by the When working with child and Interaction Not specified (Bronfenbrenner) interaction of five ecosystems parents, assess their in which the child grows up. contextual systems (community, state resources available, extended family, etc.) and tailor intervention to optimize support from all levels. EVOLUTIONARY APPROACHES Ethology and evolutionary Behavior is rooted in genes. Integrate teaching into play Interaction No stages specified, but existence psychology The behaviors and traits that to satisfy children’s natural of critical periods are transmitted are those that tendency to play. facilitate survival. See children’s abilities and Humans adapt behavior to limitations as adaptations to demands of their their environment: Infants environment. have poor eyesight in order to limit incoming visual stimuli that need to be processed. Children overestimate their abilities because that helps them take on challenging tasks and persist in the face of repeated failure. 50 51