Chapter 2: Theorists and Theories of Development PDF

CHAPTER TWO: THEORISTS AND THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT After completing Chapter Two students will be able to: Explain the value of understanding child development theories Describe several developmental theories and the theorists who pioneered them including: ◦ o Psych...

CHAPTER TWO: THEORISTS AND THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT After completing Chapter Two students will be able to: Explain the value of understanding child development theories Describe several developmental theories and the theorists who pioneered them including: ◦ o Psychodynamic Theory ◦ o Behaviorist Theory ◦ o Social Cognitive Theory ◦ o Cognitive Theory ◦ o Sociocultural Theory ◦ o Humanist Theory ◦ o Ecological Theory ◦ o Multiple Intelligence Theory ◦ o Growth Mindset Theory ◦ o Bloom’s Taxonomy Understand the educational implications of each theory Chapter Two: Theorists and Theories of Development | 21 22 | Chapter Two: Theorists and Theories of Development Theories of Development The study of child growth and development is a rich and varied subject. Child development theories focus on explaining how children grow and change from conception through childhood. Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about child growth and learning. Why do children behave in certain ways? How can we as educators better understand and support children’s behavior? It is important to study how children develop. An understanding of child development allows us to gain a deeper understanding of the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth that children experience. This chapter will focus on psychosocial, behaviorist, social cognitive, cognitive, sociocultural, humanistic, ecological, growth mindset, and multiple intelligence theories and their impact on a child’s development, with an emphasis on strengthening teaching and learning. Theories of Development | 23 Psychosocial Theory Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994), was a German-born, world-renowned scholar of the behavioral sciences. Erikson is one of the few theorists of his time to address development through the entire lifespan, not just childhood. As our society as a whole is becoming increasingly older, and thus there is an increasing need to understand individuals as they advance into old age, Erikson’s views are even more valuable and relevant today than when he first proposed them. Erikson is, perhaps, best known for his theory of psychosocial development. Having studied psychoanalysis (the prevailing theory of personality development at the time) Erikson began to shift from Freud’s emphasis on psychosexual crises to one of psychosocial conflicts. Drawing upon Sigmund Freud’s basic psychosexual theories, Anna Freud’s explorations in the psychological development of children, and his own experience as an educator, he developed a theory which outlined eight distinct stages of development over the lifespan. According to Erikson’s theory, each of the eight stages of his psychosocial theory is characterized by a different psychosocial crisis of two conflicting forces. Because each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages, any unresolved challenges of a particular stage will most likely resurface as problems later in an individual’s development. In this way, the outcomes of each stage are not permanent and can be modified by later experiences as challenges are re-confronted. Although his stages seem to align with periods of development, they are not necessarily perfectly sequential; it is possible to move from one stage up to another, and then at some point, move back down to a previous stage. For example, imagine a scenario in which you are an adult in the generativity vs. stagnation stage, having successfully resolved all the previous stages, when you find out that your spouse has cheated on you, and you decide to get a divorce. In this case, it would be perfectly expected that you would again be struggling with issues of trust, intimacy, and possibly even identity. Your success or failure at resolving these struggles previously will, in part, determine your resilience during this challenge. Beginning in infancy, his eight stages (from bottom to top) are: 24 | Psychosocial Theory Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy) The first stage of Erik Erikson’s theory centers around an infant’s basic needs being met by its caregivers, and this interaction leads to trust or mistrust. Trust, as defined by Erikson, is an essential belief in the reliability of others, as well as a fundamental sense of one’s own trustworthiness. The infant depends on its caregivers, typically its mother, for sustenance and comfort. At this stage, the child’s relative understanding of the world and society comes directly from its caregivers and their interaction with the child. A child’s first trust is always with its caregiver, whoever that might be. If caregivers expose an infant to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant’s view of the world will be one of trust. Should caregivers fail to provide a secure environment or to meet the child’s basic needs, a sense of mistrust will result (Bee & Boyd, 2009). Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration, suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence throughout childhood, as well as later in life. According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust (i.e., others are dependable and reliable). If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust (i.e., the world is an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place). The child’s number one need in this stage is to feel safe, comforted, and well cared for (Bee & Boyd, 2009). Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Toddlerhood) As children gain increasing control over their motor abilities, they begin to move around and explore their surroundings. Trusting caregivers provide a strong, secure base from which children can venture out to assert their will and newfound independence. Caregivers’ patience and encouragement help to foster a sense of autonomy—or independence. Highly restrictive caregivers, caregivers who demand too much self-regulation too soon, caregivers who refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or discourage early attempts at self-sufficiency, instill in children a sense of shame and doubt in their ability to handle new challenges. As a result, children learn to withdraw from their world. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool Years) The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. As described by Bee and Boyd (2009), the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. Because this sense of planning and judgment is still developing, along with initiative, sometimes negative behaviors (such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling) can also emerge. These behaviors are often the result of the child’s frustration in not being able to achieve a goal as planned. Sometimes preschoolers take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other people’s plans and activities. If caregivers and preschool teachers encourage and support children’s efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop a healthy sense of initiative in planning and undertaking activities. If, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires. Psychosocial Theory | 25 Industry vs. Inferiority (Elementary Years) The failure to master trust, autonomy, and initiative may cause the child to doubt themselves, leading to feelings of shame, guilt, defeat, and/or inferiority. Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals; they work hard at being responsible, being good, and “doing it right.” At this stage, children are very eager to learn and accomplish progressively complex skills, such as reading, writing, telling time, etc. Erikson viewed the elementary school years as particularly critical for the development of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities to achieve the recognition of teachers, caregivers, and peers by producing things—drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If children are, instead, ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers’ and caregivers’ expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities (Crain, 2011). Identity vs. Role-Confusion (Adolescence) As adolescents become newly concerned with how they appear to others, the need to settle on an identity becomes an increasing priority. As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role-confusion—mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society, and they may experiment with a variety of behaviors, social groups, and activities. Erikson is credited with coining the term identity crisis to explain the negotiation of this particular challenge. Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed. The teenager must achieve a sense of identity in career, gender roles, politics, and religion, among others. This stage is considered to be a turning point in human development because it marks the transition from childhood to adulthood, and more specifically, seems to be the reconciliation between the person one has come to be and the person society expects one to become. In relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to a crossroads. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood) At the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end though it still lingers at the foundation of this stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends; they want to fit in. Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (for example, through close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require. If people cannot form these relationships of intimacy (perhaps because of their own needs), a sense of isolation may result, provoking feelings of darkness and angst. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood) The stage of generativity has broad applications for family relationships, work, and society. “Generativity, then, 26 | Psychosocial Theory is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation... the concept is meant to include... productivity and creativity” (Erikson, 1950, p. 240). In other words, during middle adulthood, the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. Socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. As a person experiences successes during this stage, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity—of productivity and accomplishment—results. In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation or dissatisfaction with his or her relative lack of productivity Berk, 2017). Integrity vs. Despair (Older Adulthood) As we grow older and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as retired people. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. If we see our life as unproductive or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop a sense of despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. This stage may manifest itself out of sequence when individuals feel they are near the end of their lives (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis) (Santrock, 2013). Criticism of Psychosocial Theory Erikson’s theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the Psychosocial Theory | 27 adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed. Erikson himself states that each of these processes occurs throughout the lifetime in one form or another, and he emphasizes these periods only because it is at these times that the conflicts become most prominent (Erikson, 1956). Educational Implications Teachers who apply psychosocial development in the classroom create an environment where each child feels appreciated and is comfortable with learning new things and building relationships with peers. At the preschool level, teachers want to focus on helping children develop healthy personalities and Find out what students are interested in and create projects that incorporate their area of interest. Make sure to point out and praise students for good choices. Offer continuous, authentic feedback. Not ridicule or criticize students. They should find a private place to talk with a child about a poor choice or behavior. Help students formulate their own alternate choices by guiding them to a more positive solution and outcome. When children experiment, they should not be punished for trying something that may turn out differently from what the teacher had planned. At the elementary level, teachers should focus on achievement and peer relationships and Create a list of classroom duties that need to be completed on a scheduled basis. Ask students for their input when creating the list, as well as giving them a say in who will be in charge of what. Discuss and post classroom rules. Make sure to include students in the decision-making process when discussing rules. Encourage students to think outside of their day-to-day routine by role-playing different situations. Let students know that striving for perfection is not as important as learning from mistakes. Teach children resilience. Encourage children to help students who may be having trouble socially and/or academically. Never allow any child to make fun of or bully another child. Build confidence by recognizing success in what children do best. Provide a variety of choices when making an assignment so that students can express 28 | Psychosocial Theory  themselves with a focus on their strengths. Media Attributions Psychosocial theory © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license Old Man © Pixabay is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license Psychosocial Theory | 29 Behaviorist Theory Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus–response associations made by the learner. Behaviorists assert that the only behaviors worthy of study are those that can be directly observed; thus, it is actions, rather than thoughts or emotions, which are the legitimate object of study. Behaviorist theory does not explain abnormal behavior in terms of the brain or its inner workings. Rather, it posits that all behavior is learned habits, and attempts to account for how these habits are formed. In assuming that human behavior is learned, behaviorists also hold that all behaviors can also be unlearned and replaced by new behaviors; that is, when a behavior becomes unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one. A key element of this theory of learning is the rewarded response. The desired response must be rewarded for learning to take place (Parkay & Hass, 2000). John B. Watson (1878-1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) are the two principal originators of behaviorist approaches to learning. Watson’s basic premise was that conclusions about human development should be based on observation of overt behavior rather than speculation about subconscious motives or latent cognitive processes (Shaffer, 2000). Watson’s view of learning was based in part on the studies of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was well known for his research on a learning process called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (an unassociated signal) becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior, such as a reflex or innate behavior. Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated shortly before they were given food. He discovered that when the bell was rung at repeated feedings, the sound of the bell alone (a conditioned stimulus) would cause the dogs to salivate (a conditioned response). Skinner believed that human behavior is predictable, just like a chemical reaction. He believed that people don’t shape the world, but instead, the world shapes them. Expanding on Watson’s basic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning, known as operant conditioning. His model was based on the premise that satisfying responses are conditioned, while unsatisfying ones are not. Operant conditioning is the rewarding of a desired behavior or act that approaches it. Skinner remarked that “the things we call pleasant have an energizing or strengthening effect on our behavior” (Skinner, 1972, p. 74). Through Skinner’s research on animals, he concluded that both animals and humans would repeat acts that led to favorable outcomes and suppress those that produced unfavorable results (Shaffer, 2000). If a rat presses a bar and receives a food pellet, he will be likely to press it again. Skinner defined the bar-pressing response as operant (the learned voluntary response), and the food pellet as a positive reinforcer. Punishments, on the other hand, are consequences that suppress a response and decrease the likelihood that it will occur in the future. If the rat had been shocked every time it pressed the bar, that behavior would cease. Skinner believed the habits that each of us develop result from our unique operant learning experiences (Shaffer, 2000). Negative reinforcement can be used as a strategy to encourage certain behaviors. Defined, negative reinforcement is the encouragement of certain behaviors by removing or avoiding a negative outcome or stimuli. An alarm clock is an example of a negative reinforcer. In order to stop the buzzing, you need to wake up! Another example is the beeping car manufacturers install that go off until you fasten your seatbelt (Jordan, 2022). Criticisms of Behaviorism Behaviorism can be critiqued as an overly deterministic view of human behavior that ignores internal psychological and mental processes; behaviorism oversimplifies the complexity of human behavior. The 30 | Behaviorist Theory behaviorist approach has also been criticized for its inability to account for learning or changes in behavior that occur in the absence of environmental input. Lastly, research has shown that the principles of conditioning are not universal; the link between stimulus and response is not just a simple, direct, cause-and-effect relationship. Factors beyond the stimulus are involved in determining the response. A complete understanding of human behavior would need to include not just actions, but the inner life of the mind as well. Educational Implications Behaviorist techniques have long been employed in education to promote behavior that is desirable and discourage that which is not. Among the methods derived from behaviorist theory for practical classroom application are contracts, consequences, reinforcement, extinction, and behavior modification. Using behaviorist theory in the classroom can be rewarding for both students and teachers. Behavioral change occurs for a reason; students work for things that bring them positive feelings approval from people they admire. They change behaviors to satisfy the desires they have learned to value. They generally avoid behaviors they associate with unpleasantness and develop habitual behaviors from those that are repeated often (Parkay & Hass, 2000). The entire rationale of behavior modification is that most behavior is learned. If behaviors can be learned, then they can also be unlearned or relearned. A behavior that goes unrewarded will be extinguished. Consistently ignoring an undesirable behavior will go far toward eliminating it. Other successful classroom strategies are contracts, consequences, punishment, and others that have been described in detail earlier. Behaviorist learning theory is not only important in achieving desired behavior in mainstream education but also in other behavior. Advocates of behaviorism have effectively adopted this system of rewards and punishments in their classrooms by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing inappropriate ones. Rewards can vary widely and must be important to the learner in some way. As with all teaching methods, success depends on each student’s individual stimulus and response. Media Attributions Children taking pictures © Pixabay is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license Behaviorist Theory | 31 Social Cognitive Theory Albert Bandura (1925-) is perhaps most famous for his Bobo Doll experiments in the 1960s. At the time there was a popular belief that learning was a result of reinforcement. In the Bobo Doll experiments, Bandura presented children with examples of violent behavior or non-violent behavior towards the inflatable Bobo Doll. Children who viewed the violent behavior were in turn violent towards the doll; the control group was rarely violent towards the doll. That became Bandura’s social learning theory in the 1960s, a learning theory based on the idea that people learn by observing and interacting with others. It is often called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. Social learning is also commonly referred to as observational learning, because it comes about as a result of observing models. Bandura became interested in social aspects of learning at the beginning of his career. Early theories considered behavior to be a function of the interaction between a person and their environment. Bandura believed that behavior itself influences both the person and the environment, each of which in turn affects behavior and each other; the result is a complex interplay of factors. Social learning theory emphasizes that behavior, personal factors, and environmental factors are all equal, interlocking determinants of each other. The top four images above show scenes of adults acting aggressively toward Bandura’s doll. Children were shown these scenes, then left in a room with the doll and observed. The center and bottom rows of images show how two children emulated the behaviors they had just seen. Bandura and his colleagues continued to show that social modeling is a very effective way of learning and went on to expand motivational and cognitive processes on social learning theory. In 1986, Bandura published his second book Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, which expanded and renamed his original theory. He called the new theory Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). Bandura changed the name social learning theory to social cognitive theory to emphasize the major role cognition plays in encoding and performing behaviors. In this book, Bandura (1986) argued that human behavior is caused by personal, behavioral, and environmental influences. The theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior, along with the consequences of that behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their 32 | Social Cognitive Theory behavior and the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013). Media provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings. HOT TOPIC: Violence in Media There is still much debate over the influence exposure to media violence has on behavior, especially for children. These articles offer views on both sides of the discussion: https://www.futurity.org/media-violence-aggression-1402632-2/ The American Psychological Association’s Policy Statement regarding media violence: http://www.apa.org/about/policy/violent-video-games.aspx Criticism of Social Cognitive Theory One of the main criticisms of the social cognitive theory is that it is not a unified theory, meaning that the different aspects of the theory may not be connected. The theory is so broad that not all of its component parts are fully understood and integrated into a single explanation of learning. The findings associated with this theory are still, for the most part, preliminary. The theory is limited in that not all social learning can be directly observed. Because of this, it can be difficult to measure the effect that social cognition has on development. Finally, this theory tends to ignore maturation throughout the lifespan. Because of this, the understanding of how a child learns through observation and how an adult learns through observation are not differentiated, and factors of development are not included. Educational Implications of Social Cognitive Theory People can consciously change and develop their cognitive functioning. This is important to the proposition that how we view ourselves can also be changed or enhanced. From this perspective, people are capable of influencing their own motivation and performance. Improving performance, therefore, depends on changing some of these influences. In teaching and learning, the challenge upfront is to Get the learner to believe in his or her personal capabilities to successfully perform a designated task Provide environmental conditions, such as instructional strategies and appropriate technology, that improve the strategies and self-efficacy of the learner Provide opportunities for the learner to experience successful learning as a result of appropriate action Social Cognitive Theory | 33  Social Cognitive Theory has numerous implications in classroom teaching and learning practices Students learn a great deal simply by observing others. Describing the consequences of behavior increases appropriate behaviors, and decreases inappropriate ones Modeling provides an alternative to teaching new behaviors. Teachers must model only appropriate behaviors and not model inappropriate behaviors. Teachers should expose students to a variety of models, including peers and other adult models. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing a task; it is important for students to develop a sense of self-efficacy. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations, while ensuring that expectations are realistically challenging. Media Attributions Social Cognitive Theory © Simplypsychology is licensed under a All Rights Reserved license 34 | Social Cognitive Theory Cognitive Theory Jean Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss psychologist, is best known for his pioneering work on the development of intelligence in children. His studies have had a major impact on the fields of psychology and education. Piaget was the first to conduct systematic observations of children in order to study cognition. Piaget was primarily interested in the nature of knowledge and how it could be seen as a form of adaptation to the environment. He described his work as genetic epistemology – the study of the origins and development of knowledge. Piaget based many of his ideas on observations of his own children–Jacqueline, Lucienne, and Laurent. From his observations of children, Piaget concluded that children were actively constructing their own knowledge; they were not limited to receiving knowledge from caregivers or teachers. In studying the cognitive development of children and adolescents, Piaget identified four major stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. In each stage, children demonstrate new intellectual abilities and increasingly complex understanding of the world. According to Piaget, these stages cannot be skipped—cognitive development always follows this precise sequence. The ages at which children progress through the stages are approximations, varying with the environment and background of individual children. Further, at any given time, a child may exhibit behaviors characteristic of more than one stage. Piaget’s work provides the foundation on which constructivist theories are based. Constructivists believe that knowledge is individually constructed and that each person constructs their own understanding of concepts, which may vary from person to person (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013. Sensorimotor Development In the Sensorimotor Stage, occurring from birth to age 2, the child is concerned with gaining motor control and learning about physical objects. Piaget proposed that an infant’s intelligence is essentially practical in that all interactions with its environment are either sensory (i.e., seeing, hearing, etc.) or motor (i.e., grasping, pulling, etc.). Thus, the first stage of development is known as the sensorimotor stage. Knowledge is limited in this stage because it is based on physical interactions and experiences. Infants cannot predict reactions, and, therefore, must constantly experiment and learn through trial and error. Such exploration might include shaking a rattle or putting objects in the mouth. As they become more mobile, infants’ ability to develop cognitively increases, and early language development begins during this stage. Piaget’s Observations of Infant Jacqueline Jacqueline tries to grasp a celluloid duck on top of her quilt. She almost catches it, shakes herself, and the duck slides down beside her. It falls very close to her hand but behind a fold in the sheet. Jacqueline’s eyes have followed the movement, and she has even followed it with her outstretched hand. But as soon as the duck has disappeared—nothing more! It does not occur to her to search behind the fold of the sheet, which would be very easy to do (she twists it mechanically without Cognitive Theory | 35  searching at all). But, curiously, she again begins to stir about as she did when trying to get the duck and again glances at the top of the quilt. I then take the duck from its hiding place and place it near her hand three times. All three times she tries to grasp it, but when she is about to touch it, I replace it very obviously under the sheet. Jacqueline immediately withdraws her hand and gives up. The second and third times, I make her grasp the duck through the sheet, and she shakes it for a brief moment, but it does not occur to her to raise the cloth. Then I recommence the initial experiment. The duck is on the quilt. In trying to get it, she again causes it to slide behind the fold in the sheet; after having looked at this fold for a moment (it is near her hand), she turns over and sucks her thumb. (Source: Piaget, 1955, pp. 36–7) From such observations, Piaget concluded that infants lack an understanding of object permanence—the concept that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight. The fact that something as fundamental as object permanence does not appear to be innate illustrates how deeply and how early the child begins to build an understanding of the world, at least according to Piaget’s theory. Preoperational Development In the Preoperational Stage, from ages 2 to 7, the child is preoccupied with verbal skills. At this point, the child can name objects and reason intuitively. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, demonstrated by children in this stage by engaging in pretend play. A child’s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term operational refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are pre-operational). Children’s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. More complex concepts, such as cause and effect relationships, have not been learned. During this stage, we also expect children to display egocentrism, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Concrete Operational Development In the Concrete Operational Stage, from ages 7 to 11, the child begins to deal with abstract concepts such as numbers and relationships. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. Thinking at this stage becomes less egocentric, and children come to understand the 36 | Cognitive Theory concept of conservation—even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass into a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Formal Operational Development The period from adolescence through adulthood is the Formal Operational Stage. During this stage, adolescents and adults begin to reason logically and systematically. Adolescents and adults in this stage are able to use symbols related to abstract concepts. Adolescents can think about multiple variables in systematic ways, can formulate hypotheses, and think about abstract relationships and concepts. Piaget believed that intellectual development was a lifelong process, but that when formal operational thought was attained, no new structures were needed. Intellectual development in adults involves developing more complex thoughts through the addition of knowledge (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013). “Play is the work of childhood.” – Jean Piaget Criticisms of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory As with other major contributors to theories of development, several of Piaget’s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget’s discrete stages (Courage & Howe, 2002). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes. Piaget’s theory also predicts that thinking within a particular stage would be similar across tasks. In other words, preschool children should perform at the preoperational level in all cognitive tasks. Research has shown diversity in children’s thinking across cognitive tasks. Researchers now believe that children may be more competent than Piaget originally thought, especially in their practical knowledge. Lastly, according to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Commons & Bresette, 2006). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally- charged issues. Educational Implications An important implication of Piaget’s theory is the adaptation of instruction to the learner’s developmental level. The content of instruction needs to be consistent with the developmental level of the learner. The teacher’s role is to facilitate learning by providing a variety of experiences. Opportunities that allow students of differing cognitive levels to work together often encourage less mature students to advance to a more mature understanding. Perhaps the most significant implication for instruction is the use of concrete “hands- on” experiences to help children learn. Cognitive Theory | 37  Additional Piagetian suggestions include Continue to provide concrete props and visual aids Use familiar examples to facilitate learning more complex ideas Allow opportunities to classify and group information with increasing complexity Present problems that require logical analytic thinking, such as “brain teasers” Provide opportunities to discuss social, political, and cultural issues Teach broad concepts rather than facts Ground concepts in a context that’s meaningful and relevant to the learner Media Attributions Children playing with water © Pixabay is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license 38 | Cognitive Theory Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural Theory has a unique history. Russian-born Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) was one of the most notable theorists of his time. A remarkable and brilliant researcher and theoretician who died young, Vygotsky has been called the “Mozart of psychology” (Toulmin, 1978). In his very short life (He died at the age of 37 from tuberculosis), he received a law degree and studied literature, linguistics, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and the arts. He is best known for his contribution to the understanding of the relationship between the social world and cognitive development—specifically, his work focused on the significance of culture and the role of language. Vygotsky’s fundamental insight was that children need social interaction with adults and older children to Vygotsky believed that language is advance their psychological development. However, his what makes thought possible and is, work was rejected in the Soviet Union under Joseph thus, the basis of consciousness. Stalin’s leadership and was not released in the West until decades after his death. In the latter part of the twentieth century, his theories became widely respected and influential within the fields of developmental psychology, education, and child development, advancing human understanding of how best to support the growth and development of children to reach their fullest potential as mature human beings. According to Vygotsky, children learn by internalizing the results of interactions with adults. The first important concept he developed is the zone of proximal development (ZPD), referring to the difference between a child’s existing abilities and what he or she can learn under the guidance of an adult or a more capable peer. In other words, it’s the gap between what children are already able to do and what they are not quite ready to accomplish by themselves. Vygotsky suggested that interactive learning with adults is most effective in helping children cross this zone. According to Vygotsky, adults and more advanced peers must help direct and organize a child’s learning before the child can master and internalize it. This idea of a significant adult guiding a child through the ZPD is known as scaffolding, or structuring learning encounters in order to support and foster a child’s emerging capabilities. Scaffolding can be provided in a few ways: in the form of a mentor, by the use of objects or experiences, or by a child’s past learning. Vygotsky described human cognitive development as a “collaborative process,” which means that the learning process of individuals takes place through social interactions. Children acquire cognitive skills as part of their orientation into a way of life. Shared activities help them internalize their society’s modes of thinking and behaving. Moreover, social interaction not only helps children remember. It may also even be the key to memory formation. In addition to these ideas, Vygotsky also forwarded the notion that culture and community play decisive roles in early development (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013). Criticisms of Sociocultural Theory One criticism is Vygotsky’s view of active construction of knowledge. Some critics suggest that learning is not always a result of active construction. Rather, learning can sometimes result passively. Another criticism is that Vygotsky’s theory of language is not well-developed. Vygotsky, unfortunately, died before he had a chance to fully develop his theories. His theories rely a lot on cultural influences, for it is culture that helps to develop learners’ language acquisition and cognitive development. Vygotsky believed that very little language acquisition and cognitive development result from biological factors. However, some psychologists dismiss the idea that cultural influences play a dominant role in the development of language. Sociocultural Theory | 39 This lends credence to Piaget’s view of cognitive development occurring in stages and children not being able to learn some concepts until they reach a certain level of maturation. Perhaps the main criticism of Vygotsky’s work concerns the assumption that it is relevant to all cultures. Some dismiss the idea that Vygotsky’s ideas are culturally universal and believe the concept of scaffolding, which is heavily dependent on verbal instruction, may not be equally useful in all cultures and for all types of learning. Indeed, in some instances, observation and practice may be more effective ways of learning certain skills. Educational Implications Although the social influences on cognitive development have been considered by other researchers, such as Piaget and Bandura, Vygotsky emphasized that individual development is inherently integrated with cultural, historical, and interpersonal factors, which is foundational to developmentally appropriate practice. Some general implications of Vygotsky’s ideas can be summarized as the central role of the teacher-student relationship in learning; the inherent cultural and social influences on students’ attitudes and beliefs the importance and power of language as a primary tool for the transference of knowledge and thought the benefits of a student-centered curriculum Think of scaffolding as providing training wheels for children. Training wheels provide just enough assistance to let the child be successful, until he/she is able to ride independently. Media Attributions Vygotsky’s development © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license 40 | Sociocultural Theory Humanistic Theory Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-1970) has made a major contribution to teaching and classroom management in schools. Humanistic theory is an approach to development that examines the “whole person”—taking into consideration all aspects of human existence—and the uniqueness of all individuals. Maslow believed that people are motivated to meet certain basic needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled, the next level up is what motivates us, and so on. His theory is also called the Theory of Hierarchical Needs and is often depicted as a pyramid with five distinct levels. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Maslow believed that while every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization, unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower-level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and the loss of a job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a one-directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs, depending on each person’s specific life circumstances. The first level of physiological needs is related to survival. These are biological requirements for human sustenance (for example, air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, and sleep.) The human body cannot function normally if these needs are not satisfied. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met. Safety needs appear when physiological needs are fulfilled. These include the need for structure and predictability, protection from elements, security—physical and emotional, law and order, stability, and freedom from fear. Reducing uncertainty is the chief objective at this stage. Individuals are free from danger, fear, and chaos when their safety needs are adequately met. After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior. Humanistic Theory | 41  Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love, affiliation, or being part of a group (family, friends, work, etc.). In this stage, approval must come from earned respect, not fame or social status. Maslow classified the next level, esteem needs, into two categories: esteem for oneself (for example, dignity, achievement, mastery, and independence) and the desire for reputation or respect from others (for example, status, and prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity. If the previous needs are sufficiently met, a person now has the opportunity to reach self- actualization—realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences– the ability “to become everything one is capable of becoming” (Maslow, 1987, p. 64). Maslow believed this to be an exceptional feat since it so rarely occurs. A person who reaches this stage strives for growth and self- improvement—like Gandhi or Oprah. It is important to note that Maslow himself continued to refine his theory over several decades (Maslow, 1987), and proposed that the order in the hierarchy “is not nearly as rigid” (p. 68) as he may have implied in his earlier description. Maslow also noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs. Maslow (1987) also pointed out that most behavior is multi-motivated and noted that “any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them” (p. 71). His revised model includes levels of: Cognitive needs: knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability. Aesthetic needs: appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. Transcendence needs: A person is motivated by values which transcend the personal self (e.g., service to others, mystical experiences, religious faith, etc.)—like the Dalai Lama or the Pope (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013). 42 | Humanistic Theory Educational Implications Applications of Maslow’s hierarchical needs theory to the work of the classroom teacher are obvious. Before a student’s cognitive needs can be met, they must first fulfill their basic physiological needs. For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential. He suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimal rate until their self- esteem is strengthened. Criticisms of Humanistic Theory The most significant limitation of Maslow’s theory concerns his methodology. He looked at the biographies and writings of 18 people he identified as being self-actualized. From these sources, he developed a list of qualities that seemed characteristic of this specific group of people, as opposed to humanity in general. From a scientific perspective, there are numerous problems with this particular approach. First, it could be argued that this type of analysis is extremely subjective, as it is based entirely on the opinion of the researcher. Therefore, Maslow’s operational definition of self-actualization must not be blindly accepted as scientific fact. Additionally, Maslow’s analysis focused on a biased sample of self-actualized individuals, limited to highly educated white males (such as Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, William James, Aldous Huxley, Beethoven). Although Maslow (1970) studied self-actualized females, such as Eleanor Roosevelt and Mother Teresa, they Humanistic Theory | 43 comprised a small proportion of his sample; this makes it difficult to generalize his theory to females and individuals from lower social classes or different ethnicities. Media Attributions Humanistic Theory © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license Revised Humanistic Theory © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license 44 | Humanistic Theory Ecological Theory Also known as the Human Ecology Theory, Ecological Theory states that human development is influenced by the different types of environmental systems. Formulated by famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005), this theory helps us understand why we may behave differently when we compare our behavior in the presence of our family and our behavior when we are in school or at work. The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout our lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying degrees. These systems include the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem, and are usually depicted by nesting spheres of influence. The microsystem is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with people and social agents. Family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people with whom we have direct contact are included in the microsystem. The theory states that we are not simply recipients of experiences, rather we are contributing to the construction of such environments; we have influence over the people and systems in our lives, as they have influence over us. The mesosystem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one’s life. This means that your family experience may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, Ecological Theory | 45 he may have a low chance of developing a positive attitude toward his teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates. The exosystem is a system of indirect influences and includes systems that have influence but are those with which a child doesn’t have any direct contact. For example, a parent who has been demoted at work may bring home feelings of frustration or anger—the child may never have any interaction with the parent’s boss, but that boss may, nonetheless, have influence over how that parent interacts with the child. Ecological Theory The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. These cultural contexts include the socioeconomic status of a child, his/her ethnicity or race, and the specific society in which a child lives. The chronosystem adds the dimension of time and includes the transitions and shifts in one’s lifespan. One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple’s relationship but also their children’s behavior. According to the majority of research, children are negatively affected in the first year after divorce. The next years after the divorce might reveal that the interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable (Berk, 2017; Crain, 2011; Santrock, 2013). Educational Implications Bronfenbrenner looked at patterns of development across time as well as the interactions between the child and the environment. The educational implications of his model include the social and political policies and practices affecting children, families, and caregiving. As teachers and educators strive to become evidence- based practitioners, the goal then becomes to identify those factors such as caregivers, family, peers, culture, historical perspectives that influence students’ learning and development. In that regard, Bronfenbrenner‘s theory encourages much consideration of what constitutes supportive interactions in fostering development. It goes beyond identifying what might influence development, and, more importantly, assists in considering how and why it influences development. Furthermore, Bronfenbrenner’s theory also assists in considering how an interaction might be added or taken away or improved to foster development and, especially, how a face-to-face interaction between a developing individual and an agent within his or her environment might be changed. Although Bronfenbrenner’s multi-system model has value in identifying the resources that influence development, it is more likely of value in assisting consideration of how those resources might be used. Inherent within this idea is the emphasis Bronfenbrenner places on the understanding that interactions nearest to the child have the greatest influence on the development of that child. The ecological systems theory has also become an important foundation for other theorists’ work. (Sincero, 2012) Criticisms of Educational Theory A criticism of Bronfenbrenner has been that the model focuses too much on the biological and cognitive aspects of human development, but not much on the socio-emotional aspect of human development. A more comprehensive view of human development, one with the domains of human development at the center, has been developed. This ecological model is called the Integrated Ecological Systems Framework (Sincero, 2012). Media Attributions Ecological-Theory-1024×1024-1 © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL 46 | Ecological Theory Other Contemporary Theories to Consider Theory of Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner (1943- ) contends that previously accepted ideas of human intellectual capacity are all based on the belief that intelligence is fixed throughout one’s lifetime and that intelligence can be measured through an individual’s logical and language abilities. Gardner’s theory challenges this traditional, narrow view of intelligence. According to Gardner’s theory, intelligence encompasses the ability to create and solve problems,as well as create products or provide services that are valued within a culture or society. His original theory proposed seven separate intelligences. He has since revised this thinking and has added an eighth intelligence, and a proposed ninth intelligence that has yet to experience full acceptance. The nine intelligences are Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/ Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, and Existential. Key tenets of Gardner’s theory are All human beings possess all nine intelligences in varying degrees. Each individual has a different intelligence profile. Education can be improved by assessment of students’ intelligence profiles and designing activities accordingly. Each intelligence occupies a different area of the brain. The nine intelligences may operate in consort or independently from one another. These nine intelligences may define the human species (Armstrong, 2018; Gardner, 1999; Gardner, 2006). The Nine Intelligences Verbal/Linguistic intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to understand and manipulate words and languages. Everyone is thought to possess this intelligence at some level. This includes reading, writing, speaking, and other forms of verbal and written communication. Traditionally, linguistic intelligence and logical/ mathematical intelligence have been highly valued in education and learning environments. Logical/Mathematical intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to do things with data: collect and organize, analyze and interpret, conclude and predict. Individuals strong in this intelligence see patterns and relationships. These individuals are oriented toward thinking: inductive and deductive logic, numeration, and abstract patterns. This is the kind of intelligence studied and documented by Piaget. Visual/Spatial intelligence refers to the ability to form and manipulate a mental model. Individuals with strength in this area depend on visual thinking and are very imaginative. People with this kind of intelligence tend to learn most readily from visual presentations such as movies, pictures, videos, and demonstrations using models and props. They like to draw, paint, or sculpt their ideas and often express their feelings and moods through art. These individuals often daydream, imagine and pretend. Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence refers to people who process information through the sensations they feel in their bodies. These people like to move around, touch the people they are talking to and act things out. They are good at small and large muscle skills; they enjoy all types of sports and physical activities. They often express themselves through dance. Other Contemporary Theories to Consider | 47  Musical intelligence refers to the ability to understand, create, and interpret musical rhythm and tones, and the capability to compose music. Composers and instrumentalists are individuals with strength in this area. Interpersonal Although Gardner classifies interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences separately, there is a lot of interplay between the two, and they are often grouped together. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to interpret and respond to the moods, emotions, motivations, and actions of others. Interpersonal intelligence also requires good communication and interaction skills, and the ability to show empathy toward the feelings of other individuals. Counselors and social workers are professionals that require strength in this area. Intrapersonal intelligence, simply put, is the ability to know oneself. It is an internalized version of interpersonal intelligence. To exhibit strength in intrapersonal intelligence, an individual must be able to understand their own emotions, and motivations, and be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses. It’s important to note that this intelligence involves the use of all others. Naturalistic intelligence describes the ability to both identify and distinguish between different types of things found in the natural world. Naturalistic thinkers are people who value order and notice relationships and patterns. Existential Intelligence encompasses the ability to pose and ponder questions regarding existence—including life and death. This would be in the domain of philosophers and religious leaders (Armstrong, 2018; Gardner, 1999; Gardner, 2006). 48 | Other Contemporary Theories to Consider  Although Gardner’s theory was not originally designed for use in a classroom application, it has been widely embraced by educators and enjoyed numerous adaptations in a variety of educational settings. Teachers have always known that students had different strengths and weaknesses in the classroom. Gardner’s research was able to articulate that and provide direction as to how to improve a student’s ability in any given intelligence. Match the terms on the left column with the correct definitions on the right. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://rotel.pressbooks.pub/whole-child/?p=719#h5p-2 Bloom’s Taxonomy Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) was an influential psychological researcher and child activist. In 1956, Bloom, with collaborators Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill, and David Krathwohl, published a framework for categorizing educational goals: The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Familiarly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy, this framework has been applied by generations of K-12 teachers and college instructors in their teaching. The framework devised by Bloom and his collaborators consisted of six major categories of goals, in order of complexity: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. Those categories after Knowledge were presented as “skills and abilities,” with the understanding that knowledge was the necessary precondition for putting these skills and abilities into practice. In 2001, a group of cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists, instructional researchers, and testing and assessment specialists published a revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy with the title A Taxonomy for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment. This title draws attention away from the somewhat static notion of “educational objectives” (in Bloom’s original title) and points to a more dynamic conception of the classifications of critical thinking. The authors of the revised taxonomy underscore this dynamism, using verbs to label their categories and subcategories (rather than the nouns of the original taxonomy). These “action words” describe the cognitive processes by which thinkers encounter and work with knowledge: Other Contemporary Theories to Consider | 49 The following chart lists verbs for student objective at each of Bloom’s levels. Educators often find it helpful to use such a chart to be sure that they are both focusing their lessons, as well as targeting a variety of levels when planning lessons. This chart can be particularly useful in differentiation instruction for the varied needs of learners. It is important to keep in mind that children of nearly any age are capable of functioning at each level, as long as they are provided with the proper support to help scaffold their learning. Notice that some verbs can be applied to more than one level, depending on how the lesson is structured. Mindset Theory The concept of Mindset Theory was developed by psychologist Carol Dweck (1946- ) and popularized in her book, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (2016). In recent years, many schools and educators have started using Dweck’s theories to inform how they teach students. A mindset, according to Dweck, is a self-perception or self-theory that people hold about themselves. Believing that you are either intelligent or unintelligent is a simple example of a mindset. People may also have a mindset related to their personal or professional lives— “I’m a good teacher” or “I’m a bad parent,” for example. People can be aware or unaware of their mindsets, according to Dweck, but they can have a profound effect on learning achievement, skill acquisition, personal relationships, professional success, and many other dimensions of life. Dweck’s educational work centers on the distinction between a fixed mindset and growth mindset. According to Dweck, in a fixed mindset, people believe their basic qualities, like their intelligence or talent, are simply fixed traits. They spend their time documenting their intelligence or talent instead of developing them. They also believe that talent alone creates success—without effort. Dweck’s research suggests that students who have adopted a fixed mindset believe that they are either smart or dumb, and there is no way to change this. For example, they may learn less than they could or learn at a slower rate, while also shying away from challenges, since poor performance might either confirm they can’t learn if they believe they are dumb or indicate that they are less intelligent than they think if they believe they are smart. Dweck’s findings also suggest that when students with fixed mindsets fail at something, as they inevitably will, they tend to tell themselves they can’t or won’t be able to do it (“I just can’t learn Algebra”), or they make excuses to rationalize the failure (“I would have passed the test if I had had more time to study”). Alternatively, in a growth mindset, people believe that their most basic abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work—brains and talent are just the starting point. This view creates a love of learning and a resilience that is essential for great accomplishment. Students who embrace growth mindsets—the belief 50 | Other Contemporary Theories to Consider that they can learn more or become smarter if they work hard and persevere—may learn more, learn it more quickly, and view challenges and failures as opportunities to improve their learning and skills. Dweck’s delineation of fixed and growth mindsets has potentially far-reaching implications for schools and teachers since the ways in which students think about learning, intelligence, and their own abilities can have a significant effect on learning progress and academic improvement. If teachers encourage students to believe that they can learn more and become smarter if they work hard and practice, Dweck’s findings suggest, it is more likely that students will, in fact, learn more, and learn it faster and more thoroughly than if they believe that learning is not determined by how intelligent or unintelligent they are. Her work has also shown that a growth mindset can be intentionally taught to students. Teachers might, for example, intentionally praise student effort and perseverance instead of ascribing learning achievements to innate qualities or talents (for example, giving feedback such as “You must have worked very hard” rather than “You are so smart.” Read more about mindset in Christine Gross-Loh’s interview with Dweck for the Atlantic, titled Don’t Let Praise Become the Consolation Prize. In the interview, Dweck clarifies some common misconceptions which are often made. The interview can be found by following this link: https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2016/12/how-praise-became-a-consolation-prize/ 510845/ Media Attributions Multiple Intelligences chart © Howard via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license Bloom’s Taxonomy © Deirdre Budzyna via. ROTEL is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license Other Contemporary Theories to Consider | 51 52 | Other Contemporary Theories to Consider