Introduction to Work Psychology PDF

Chapter 9: Social processes in the workplace Learning Outcomes: After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the importance of viewing the organisation as an open system Outline the characteristics of organisational designs associated with Industry 4.0/Fourth Indust...

Chapter 9: Social processes in the workplace Learning Outcomes: After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the importance of viewing the organisation as an open system Outline the characteristics of organisational designs associated with Industry 4.0/Fourth Industrial Revolution Suggest strategies for optimising performance in virtual teams Suggest ways in which group development can influence and enhance group efficiency Explain the impact of group structure on group behaviour and effectiveness Explain how group processes can either hinder or enhance group behaviour and effectiveness Suggest strategies for aligning employee behaviour with the desired organisational culture Discuss social change in organisations. Introduction The ability to work in a team is one of the most critical skills that managers cite when they recruit new employees Groups and teams fulfil a very important role in organisation → organisational goals are ultimately attained through the co- ordinated efforts of individuals, groups and teams The organisation itself can be perceived as a group because it is a collection of people who work together to achieve a common goal, as defi ned by the organisation’s vision and strategy It is important that industrial and organisational (I-O) psychologists, human resource (HR) practitioners and team facilitators are equipped with the necessary competencies to understand how groups and teams work so that they will be able to help them develop and grow Viewing the organisation as a system Figure 9.2 (302)  The open-systems approach views the organisation as an open system with permeable boundaries that actively interacts with the environment The organisation receives input into the organisational system which is then transformed by the system into outputs The organisation has to adopt optimal social and technical systems that will enable it to be successful and survive in a competitive environment The social component consists of individuals, groups and their work relationships the technical component consists of tools, machinery, technology processes and techniques Organisational design When an organisation is established / change is required in long-established organisations a decision must be made about how to group and connect people to meet organisational goals To take this decision, the nature, size, complexity and goals of the business are taken into consideration The new design of the organisation should be aligned with its vision and mission The end product is a blueprint of the organisation illustrated by an organogram or organisational chart that indicates different tasks, responsibilities, workflow and authority  The fundamental characteristics of organisational structure influence the extent to which an organisation will have a mechanistic or organic design: Work specialisation Multi-skilling and teamwork Standardisation Departmentalisation Chain of command Span of control Centralisation and decentralisation Traditional organisational designs Bureaucracy standardisation of work processes through policies, rules and uniform procedures specialised departments for specific functions allows for the efficient execution of standardised activities, economies of scale, minimum duplication of personnel and equipment and efficient control Matrix combines functional and product departmentalisation structure A notable characteristic of the matrix structure is the dual lines of authority Contemporary organisational designs The virtual A virtual team is defined as a group consisting of co-workers who are not co-located (in the same location), but work towards a shared goal for organisation which they are mutually responsible In terms of leadership and management, perceived supervisory support and trust appear as critical factors in virtual teams Communication between team members in a virtual environment is characteristically of shorter duration and lacks non-verbal cues Employees work asynchronously with physical distance → turn into psychological distance and a lack of trust which can impede performance The organisational culture need to be purposefully strengthened Contemporary organisational designs Team-based Team structures result in a flatter organisational structure organisations These teams are responsible and accountable for team output and receive minimal supervision A cross-functional team is another type of team used in organisations. In this case, members representing various levels and departments are brought together to address mutual problems or projects Contemporary organisational designs Future Organisations will purposefully focus on creating value organisations networks rather than value chains & networks Organisations will enter into strategic partnerships with other organisations and individuals to create efficiencies and competitiveness To develop Industry 4.0 initiatives, manufacturers will bring together IT, production, operations, engineering, and R&D capabilities outside of traditional organisational structures Network organisation is not merely created by technologies, but by people who are able to take an ecosystemic perspective of the organisation Groups In an open system, individuals, groups and teams are continuously interacting with each other and organisational processes to effectively respond to environmental influences and demands A group should demonstrate the following characteristics: Social interaction Agreed or common goals Group structure Group identity Group development Groups that are newly formed are not productive from the beginning Groups develop over time in terms of maturity Understanding the psychological processes related to group development can assist in managing remote groups more effectively The most popular views are that groups develop either in five stages or according to the punctuated equilibrium model Understanding how groups develop enables the I-O psychologist, managers, group leaders and group members to proactively anticipate and manage group processes so that the group can start performing well as quickly as possible The five-stage model of group development 1 Forming 2 Storming 3 Norming 4 Performing 5 Adjourning / mourning The punctuated equilibrium model The model suggests that groups have similar experiences at specific points in the groups’ development that shift the direction of the group: The first meeting Inertia The transition Second phase of inertia Last meeting Figure 9.6 (p. 312) Group structure Structure that shapes the behaviour of members and explains and predicts individual and group behaviour An I-O psychologist, group facilitator or team leader typically assist a group in identifying how structural factors influence the functioning of the group Where required, changes are considered and suggested Structural variables for consideration include: Formal leadership Roles Norms Group status Group size Composition Leadership A leader is defined as someone in the group who mobilises group efforts towards the attainment of a common goal Groups have multiple goals at any given time and any group member may emerge as a leader – it may not be the designated group leader Feldman and Msibi (2014) suggest a balanced approach between Eurocentric and Afrocentric leadership in South African organisations (or teams). Eurocentric leadership tends to be more directive, while Afrocentric leadership favours the principles of ubuntu that aim at creating respect, collaboration and consensus Roles Role → refers to a set of expected behaviour patterns associated with a given position in the group Role identity → displaying attitudes and actual behaviours that are consistent with a role Role perception → people’s view of how they should act in a given situation is described as their role perception Role expectation → the way in which others believe the individual should act in a given situation or context, such as family, work and society Role stereotypes → when role expectations are generalised into specific categories The psychological contract → unwritten contract about the expectations between employees and their employer Role conflict and work-life integration →when an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations Norms Norms exist in every life situation → work groups typically have norms related to: Performance members are given explicit cues on what to do, how to work and related expectations and process Appearance appropriate dress, but can also refer to the general image created by a person Informal social arrangements Social-arrangement norms develop informally and dictate the nature of interaction among group members Resource allocation originate in the group or in the organisation cover aspects such as pay, assignment of difficult jobs and allocation of new tools and equipment Status Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others Status is a significant motivator and can cause dissatisfaction if people feel their perceived status is not acknowledged Formal status: Is awarded through titles or facilities. This includes being recognised as someone special or receiving an award. In the organisational context, it refers to status symbols, such as a large office, an impressive view, titles, high pay, fringe benefits and preferred work schedules. Informal status: Is awarded based on personal attributes, such as education, age, gender, skill and experience. Status equity refers to the belief that status differences in a group are fair. When inequity or unfairness is perceived, it creates dissatisfaction and could lead to negative competition. Group size A group’s size affects the group’s overall behaviour, depending on the context Large groups (those with 12 or more members): Are good for gaining diverse input. If the goal of the group is fact finding, larger groups should be more effective Social loafing is the tendency of group members to do less than they are capable of as individuals Smaller groups: Are better at doing something productive with the input they receive. Groups of approximately seven members tend to be more effective in taking action. Group diversity Group diversity refers to the similarities and differences that are found among the members of the group These differences or similarities are: observable (such as gender, race and age) → surface-level diversity unobservable (such as thinking style, life story and skills) → deep- level diversity Heterogeneous groups (those composed of dissimilar individuals) are more likely to have diverse abilities and information and should be more creative and effective than homogenous groups Relational demography also needs to be considered reflects how a single person in a group differs from the other people in the group  Cultural diversity is an important factor to consider in groups Different cultures place different values on aspects such as group work, independence and authority. People from one culture may prefer to work in groups (collectivism), whereas those from another culture may prefer to work on their own (individualism) Diversity management involves creating an inclusive climate in which all group members feel that they are valued and are making a valuable contribution to the group Diversity management aims at: establishing trust, constructive interpersonal relations and shared values providing opportunities for collaboration, shared decision-making, networking and creativity to increase quality, productivity and efficiency Group processes Group processes refer to the interaction between group members and include communication patterns, group decision processes, leader behaviour, power dynamics and conflict interactions. Group processes can either enhance or hinder the performance of a group Group dynamics Group dynamics refer to dynamic social processes in groups, and specifically to changes that occur in groups that trigger actions and reactions from members of the group Figure 9.9 (p. 322) Group cohesion Group cohesion refers to the degree to which members are attracted to one another and motivated to stay in the group Cohesiveness is influenced by the following factors: Time spent together Exclusivity of the group Highly cohesive groups are Group size more effective than those with Member orientation less cohesiveness, but only if External threats the group adheres to Previous successes performance-related norms. Group communication Communication is one of the basic group processes and can be defined as the exchange of information and meaning by two or more people Breakdowns in transmission can result from filtering and distortion: Filtering: Occurs when parts of the message are left out when the message is sent from one person to the other. People tend to transmit only what they deem important on behalf of the receiver. Distortion: Occurs when people rephrase a message differently to how it was formulated by the original sender, and the meaning of the message is therefore changed  With large groups, communications can also fail due to less overall participation and dominance by a few members Misunderstanding can occur due to Physical barriers (for example, noise) Information overload Psychological state of the receiver Feedback is very important in communication as it indicates to the sender whether the message was understood and accepted by the receiver To ensure effective feedback in the communication process, the receiver should reflect, ask questions and give comments Influence, power and organisational politics Power and influence are two behavioural tactics used in groups to direct the behaviour of group members, get views accepted, obtain information or dominate others Influence is the ability to change the perceptions, attitudes or behaviour of another person, even in the absence of formal power Organisational politics generally refer to self-serving behaviours that benefit some individuals and groups, but that are not endorsed in the organisation Political skill is the ability to effectively understand others at work and to utilise political knowledge to influence others and enhance personal and organisational goals 1. social astuteness (accurately understanding social situations) 2. Interpersonal influence 3. networking ability (such as developing connections) 4. apparent sincerity (being honest, having no hidden motives) Conflict, collaboration and team altruism Conflict in a group occurs when group members have different goals or when they disagree on how to achieve goals Conflict can be good, but it can also be negative in a group if not managed correctly Conflict is less likely to occur if team members are collectively made responsible for goal attainment and are rewarded for collective efforts Misunderstandings occur due to an inability to communicate or access communication channels, as well as from communication barriers, poor listening skills and language and cultural differences The role of the leader in fostering team altruism has been emphasised in research on collaboration in teams Team altruism is prosocial behaviour → team members’ interdependent voluntary actions that benefit others, that involve sacrifice and that is not formally expected by team leaders or managers Trust and ethics Trust is a vital characteristic for teams, leadership and therefore also for organisations Trust is a psychological state in Ethics is the study of moral which a person is willing to be values and behaviour and refers vulnerable due to the person’s to what is good and right. Ethics positive expectation of the contributes to an organisation’s actions and reactions of another reputation due to the link or of others between ethics and trust Group decision-making Table 9.3 (p. 327) Group-think Group processes (cohesion & conformity) work against the effectiveness of the group Group members rationalise or explain away any resistance to their assumptions Members apply direct pressure on those who momentarily express doubts Members keep quiet or minimise their doubts illusion of unanimity Group-shift Group-shift indicates that in discussing a given set of alternatives and arriving at a solution, individual group members tend to exaggerate (or shift) the initial positions they held Group-shift may be the result of group members becoming more comfortable and familiar with each other and, therefore, more bold and daring, or when risk-taking behaviour is considered as desirable or the result of shared rather than individual responsibility for the outcome of decisions  Group decision making techniques Brainstorming Group members are encouraged to generate as many ideas or solutions to a problem as possible, without criticising any of the suggested ideas/solutions The nominal Group members are not allowed to communicate directly with each other at group technique all. Instead, they communicate via the group leader or facilitator, who acts as a conduit of communication The Delphi Similar to the nominal group technique, except that the group’s members technique never meet face to face SWOT analysis Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats are analysed Online decision- The major advantages of online meetings are anonymity, honesty and making speed. Participants can anonymously type any message they want and it flashes on the screen for all to see Organisational culture Organisational culture is defined as an interdependent set of beliefs, values, behavioural tendencies and tools that become so common to an organisation that they maintain themselves over long periods of time Organisational culture includes both observable and unobservable characteristics of an organisation Observable characteristics include aspects such as dress code, myths, jargon and distinct behaviour patterns Unobservable characteristics include shared values, norms, beliefs and assumptions of the organisation’s members How organisational culture is formed The founder of an organisation brings a specific philosophy into the organisation The management of an organisation influences the organisational culture through its actions and words The nature of the organisation itself also influences the development of an organisational culture Employees respond to an organisational culture by acting in the prerequisite manner Organisational socialisation and onboarding Organisational socialisation refers to the process through which new employees are exposed to the organisation’s values, beliefs and customs and are moulded into the organisational culture Onboarding incorporates socialisation and implies that a person is able to adjust to the organisational values as soon as they enter the organisation and is, therefore, able to perform excellently without the organisation having to spend too much time or resources on orientation and training  Table 9.4 (p. 332) The process of organisational socialisation Organisations and social change Globalisation, workforce diversity, technological change and the international call for ethical behaviour are considered as major external forces that impact on organisations In a humanistic organisation, human potential such as creativity, rationality and character is respected and nurtured. Employees are allowed to exercise freedom with a sense of responsibility and understanding that they are making a contribution to a meaningful cause The organisational change process Unfreezing Management realises the need for change and prepares the organisation for change Movement The strategies for change are developed and implemented Refreezing New levels of performance are reinforced until they become habitual Types of social interventions The development of the individual empowerment, interpersonal skills training, career-life planning and wellness strategies The development of teams Team strategies are aimed at identifying and solving problems such as a lack of communication, conflict, or poor decision-making and at helping teams set goals and allocate tasks The development of the organisation as a whole Interventions aimed at the organisation Implication of social processes for managers Teams form the basis of collaboration, knowledge sharing and performance in organisations To attain these goals, groups need to function optimally from the moment they are formed Managers need to create a structure that fosters team identity and enables cross-boundary interaction providing diverse input Managers themselves act as group facilitators and therefore need to be cognisant of group dynamics to be able to foster effective relationship building, communication and decision- making.