ITP Midterms Reviewer PDF

MIDTERMS REVIEWER Wilhelm Wundt: Often regarded as the father of psychology, Wundt established the Chapter 1: What is Psychology? first psychology laboratory...

MIDTERMS REVIEWER Wilhelm Wundt: Often regarded as the father of psychology, Wundt established the Chapter 1: What is Psychology? first psychology laboratory in 1879 and Chapter 1.1: What is Psychology? focused on introspection (examining one’s conscious thoughts). 1. Definition of Psychology Structuralism (Edward Titchener): Early Psychology is the scientific study of approach that tried to identify the basic behavior and mental processes. It examines components (structures) of the mind. how humans think, feel, and act. Functionalism (William James): Emphasized Key areas of focus include: the purpose (function) of behavior and mental processes in helping people adapt to o Behavior: Observable actions (e.g., their environments. speaking, movement). 5. The Role of Research in Psychology o Mental processes: Internal experiences (e.g., thoughts, Psychology is empirical, meaning it relies on emotions, memories). scientific research methods to gather evidence. 2. Fields of Psychology Psychologists use various methods, including Clinical psychology: Focuses on diagnosing experiments, surveys, case studies, and and treating psychological disorders. observations, to draw conclusions about Cognitive psychology: Studies mental behavior and mental processes. processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. Chapter 1.2: The Science of Psychology Developmental psychology: Examines growth and changes across the lifespan. 1. The Scientific Method Social psychology: Investigates how people Psychology uses the scientific method to influence and relate to one another. ensure research is objective, reliable, and valid. Biological psychology (neuroscience): Looks at how the brain and nervous system 1. Observation: Identifying a influence behavior. phenomenon or problem. Industrial-organizational psychology: 2. Hypothesis: Formulating a testable Applies psychological principles to workplace prediction based on observations. environments. 3. Experiment: Testing the hypothesis Educational psychology: Studies how using controlled methods. people learn and the best teaching practices. 4. Conclusion: Analyzing data to 3. Key Psychological Issues confirm or refute the hypothesis. Nature vs. Nurture: The debate over the 5. Replication: Repeating experiments relative influence of genetics (nature) and to confirm results. environment (nurture) on behavior and mental processes. 2. Research Methods Free Will vs. Determinism: Do humans have Experiments: Involves manipulating one free will to make choices, or are their actions variable (the independent variable) to observe its effect on another variable (the determined by external factors (e.g., biology, environment)? dependent variable) under controlled conditions. Mind-Brain Problem: The relationship o Experiments establish cause-and- between mental activity and brain activity. effect relationships. Is the mind separate from the brain or a result of brain processes? o Control groups: Do not receive the Dualism (the mind and body are separate) vs. experimental treatment, used to monism (the mind and body are one). compare with the experimental group. 4. Historical Roots of Psychology Observational Studies: Researchers observe and record behavior in natural settings.  o Can be naturalistic observation Chapter 2: Scientific Methods in Psychology (watching without intervention) or Chapter 2.1: The Cells of the Nervous System participant observation (researcher joins the group being studied). 1. Overview of the Nervous System Surveys: Use questionnaires or interviews to The nervous system controls behavior, gather data on people's thoughts, attitudes, thoughts, and emotions by transmitting and behaviors. signals between the brain and the body. o Sampling: A subset of the population Two main parts: that represents the larger group. o Central Nervous System (CNS): o Random sampling ensures that every Comprises the brain and spinal cord. individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected. o Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Consists of all the nerves outside the Correlational Studies: Examine the CNS, responsible for transmitting relationship between two variables. information between the CNS and the rest of the body. o Correlation coefficient: Ranges from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and 2. Neurons: The Basic Unit direction of the relationship. Neurons are specialized cells that transmit o Correlation does not imply information through electrical and chemical causation. signals. 3. Ethical Issues in Psychological Research Structure of a neuron: Informed Consent: Participants must be o Cell body (soma): Contains the informed about the nature of the research nucleus and manages the cell's and consent to participate. functions. Confidentiality: Participants’ personal o Dendrites: Branch-like structures information must be kept private. that receive signals from other neurons. Debriefing: After the experiment, researchers must explain the purpose and any deception o Axon: A long fiber that transmits used during the study. signals away from the cell body. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs): Ensure o Myelin sheath: A fatty covering that that research involving humans meets ethical insulates the axon and speeds up guidelines. signal transmission. 4. Evaluating Psychological Research o Synapse: The gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the Reliability: The consistency of a research dendrite of another neuron where study or measuring test. communication occurs. Validity: Whether a study or test measures 3. Types of Neurons what it claims to measure. Sensory neurons: Carry signals from the o Internal validity: The extent to which body to the CNS (e.g., touch, sight). a study shows that changes in the dependent variable were caused by Motor neurons: Transmit signals from the the manipulation of the independent CNS to the muscles and glands to initiate variable. action. o External validity: The extent to which Interneurons: Connect neurons within the the results of a study can be CNS, facilitating communication between generalized to other people and sensory and motor neurons. settings. 4. Neural Communication Action potential: The electrical signal that travels along the axon, triggered by a change in voltage.  o It follows an all-or-none principle: o Postsynaptic neuron: The neuron the neuron either fires at full strength receiving the signal. or not at all. Steps of Synaptic Transmission: Resting potential: The state when a neuron is 1. The action potential reaches the axon not transmitting a signal, with a negative terminal of the presynaptic neuron. charge inside the cell compared to outside. 2. This triggers the release of Synaptic transmission: The process by neurotransmitters from vesicles into the synaptic which neurotransmitters are released from cleft. the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. 3. Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. 5. Neurotransmitters 4. The binding of neurotransmitters to receptors Chemicals that transmit signals between can either excite (increase the likelihood of an action neurons across the synapse. potential) or inhibit (decrease the likelihood of an o Excitatory neurotransmitters: action potential) the postsynaptic neuron. Increase the likelihood of the 2. Reuptake and Enzyme Degradation receiving neuron firing (e.g., glutamate). After neurotransmitters have transmitted their message, they are removed from the o Inhibitory neurotransmitters: synapse through: Decrease the likelihood of the receiving neuron firing (e.g., GABA). o Reuptake: Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the presynaptic o Dopamine: Involved in movement, neuron for reuse. motivation, and reward. o Enzyme degradation: Enzymes break o Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, down neurotransmitters to stop their and appetite. activity. o Acetylcholine: Involved in muscle 3. Synaptic Plasticity movement and memory. Synaptic plasticity: The ability of synapses o Norepinephrine: Linked to arousal to strengthen or weaken over time in and alertness. response to activity or inactivity. o Endorphins: Natural painkillers that o This is essential for learning, memory, produce feelings of pleasure. and adaptation to new experiences. 6. Glial Cells o Long-term potentiation (LTP): The Glia support neurons by providing nutrients, strengthening of synapses, which removing waste, and insulating neurons. enhances communication between neurons. o Astrocytes: Maintain the blood-brain barrier and support communication o Long-term depression (LTD): The between neurons. weakening of synapses, reducing neural communication. o Oligodendrocytes: Form the myelin sheath in the CNS. 4. Drugs and Their Effects on Neurotransmission o Schwann cells: Form the myelin Agonists: Drugs that enhance the action of sheath in the PNS. neurotransmitters (e.g., nicotine mimics acetylcholine). Antagonists: Drugs that block or inhibit Chapter 2.2: How Neurons Communicate neurotransmitter activity (e.g., antipsychotics 1. Synaptic Transmission Process block dopamine receptors). Neurons communicate via the synapse, Some drugs affect the reuptake or breakdown where the axon of one neuron meets the of neurotransmitters, prolonging their effects dendrite of another. (e.g., antidepressants like SSRIs prevent serotonin reuptake, increasing its o Presynaptic neuron: The neuron availability). sending the signal. 5. Neuromodulators Chapter 3: Biological Psychology Neuromodulators are chemicals that do not Chapter 3.1: The Nervous System and Brain directly initiate postsynaptic potentials but Anatomy can affect the strength of neurotransmitter 1. The Nervous System Structure release or postsynaptic receptor sensitivity. Central Nervous System (CNS): Includes the o They act more slowly and have longer- brain and spinal cord. It processes lasting effects compared to typical information and coordinates responses. neurotransmitters. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Consists o Examples include certain peptides of nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of and endocannabinoids, which the body. Two main divisions: influence pain perception, mood, and appetite. o Somatic nervous system: Controls voluntary movements and relays sensory information to the CNS. o Autonomic nervous system: Regulates involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion). ▪ Sympathetic division: Activates the “fight-or-flight” response. ▪ Parasympathetic division: Calms the body, conserving energy (“rest and digest”). 2. The Brain’s Organization The brain is divided into three main regions: 1. Hindbrain: Includes the medulla (controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate), pons (involved in sleep and arousal), and cerebellum (coordinates movement and balance). 2. Midbrain: Involved in sensory processing and the regulation of arousal. 3. Forebrain: The largest region, involved in complex behaviors and higher cognitive functions. Key structures include: ▪ Cerebral cortex: The outer layer, responsible for complex thought processes like decision-making, perception, and language. ▪ Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex. ▪ Hypothalamus: Regulates basic drives such as hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior, and controls the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. 3. Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex Experience-dependent plasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize itself in response Frontal lobe: Involved in decision-making, to environmental demands (e.g., learning new problem-solving, planning, and motor skills). control. The prefrontal cortex plays a key role in personality and behavior. Recovery from brain damage: After injury, the brain can sometimes reorganize itself by Parietal lobe: Processes sensory information forming new neural connections or using such as touch, temperature, and pain. existing connections in new ways. This is Temporal lobe: Responsible for hearing and more pronounced in younger individuals due language comprehension (e.g., Wernicke’s to greater plasticity. area). Occipital lobe: Processes visual information. Chapter 3.3: The Endocrine System and Hormones 4. Hemispheric Specialization 1. The Endocrine System The brain is divided into two hemispheres, The endocrine system consists of glands connected by the corpus callosum. that release hormones into the bloodstream. o The left hemisphere generally Hormones are chemical messengers that controls language, logic, and regulate bodily functions, such as growth, analytical thinking. metabolism, and mood. o The right hemisphere is more o Hormones are slower than involved in spatial abilities, facial neurotransmitters but have longer- recognition, and creativity. lasting effects. o Each hemisphere controls the 2. Major Endocrine Glands opposite side of the body (i.e., left Pituitary gland: Known as the “master hemisphere controls the right side of gland,” it controls other endocrine glands and the body). regulates growth and reproductive functions. It is controlled by the hypothalamus. Chapter 3.2: Brain Communication and Plasticity Thyroid gland: Regulates metabolism through the release of thyroxine. 1. Brain Communication Adrenal glands: Release adrenaline Neurons communicate through action (epinephrine) and cortisol during stress, potentials and synaptic transmission triggering the fight-or-flight response. (discussed in Chapter 2.2). Pancreas: Releases insulin to regulate blood Neurotransmitters are key to brain sugar levels. communication. Different neurotransmitters are involved in various functions, such as Gonads (testes and ovaries): Produce sex dopamine (movement, reward), serotonin hormones, such as testosterone and (mood regulation), and acetylcholine estrogen, that influence sexual development (memory, learning). and behavior. 2. Brain Plasticity 3. Hormones and Behavior Plasticity refers to the brain's ability to Hormones play a significant role in regulating change and adapt in response to experience mood, energy levels, and stress responses. or injury. o Cortisol: Released in response to o Synaptic plasticity: The stress, it increases blood sugar levels strengthening or weakening of and suppresses the immune system. synapses based on usage (important Chronic high levels of cortisol can for learning and memory). lead to negative health outcomes, such as anxiety and depression. o Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons, particularly in the o Testosterone: Influences aggression, hippocampus, a region involved in sexual behavior, and muscle memory formation. development.  o Oxytocin: Involved in bonding, social Gene-environment interactions: The interactions, and childbirth. environment can influence the expression of genes, and genetic predispositions can shape how individuals respond to their environment. Chapter 3.4: Genetics and Evolution in Psychology o Epigenetics: The study of how 1. Genetics and Behavior environmental factors (e.g., diet, stress) can affect gene expression Genes: Units of heredity made up of DNA that without altering the DNA sequence. influence physical traits and behavior. o Genotype: An individual’s genetic makeup. o Phenotype: The observable characteristics resulting from the interaction of the genotype and environment. o Polygenic traits: Traits influenced by multiple genes (e.g., intelligence, personality). 2. The Role of Heritability Heritability: The proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genetic factors within a population. o Heritability estimates range from 0 to 1, where 0 means no genetic contribution and 1 means all variation is due to genetics. o Heritability applies to populations, not individuals. 3. Twin and Adoption Studies Twin studies: Compare identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) to fraternal twins (who share 50% of their genes) to estimate the genetic contribution to traits. Adoption studies: Compare adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents to separate genetic and environmental influences. 4. Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary psychology examines how behaviors and mental processes have evolved over time to solve adaptive problems. o Natural selection: Traits that enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to future generations. o Examples of evolved behaviors include mate selection, parental investment, and cooperation. 5. The Interaction of Genes and Environment Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception 2. Eye Anatomy Chapter 4.1: Basic Concepts of Sensation and Cornea: Focuses incoming light. Perception Pupil: The adjustable opening for light entry. 1. Definitions Iris: Controls the size of the pupil. Sensation: Detection of physical stimuli by Lens: Focuses light onto the retina. sensory receptors and the transmission of this information to the brain. Retina: Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones). Perception: The process of interpreting sensory information to give it meaning. o Rods: For low-light vision (black and white). 2. Sensory Process o Cones: For color vision and detail Stimuli: Physical energies that affect sensory (red, green, blue). receptors. 3. Visual Processing Transduction: Conversion of physical stimuli into neural signals. Visual signals travel through the optic nerve to the thalamus and then to the primary 3. Thresholds visual cortex in the occipital lobe. Absolute Threshold: Minimum intensity of a Feature Detectors: Neurons that respond to stimulus that can be detected 50% of the specific features of visual stimuli. time. 4. Theories of Color Vision Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference, JND): Minimum difference Trichromatic Theory: Three types of cones between two stimuli that can be detected. for color perception (red, green, blue). o Weber's Law: The JND is proportional Opponent-Process Theory: Color perception to the magnitude of the stimulus. is controlled by opposing colors (red-green, blue-yellow). 4. Signal Detection Theory 5. Depth Perception Examines how people detect signals amidst noise, incorporating both sensory processes Binocular Cues: Depth cues requiring both and decision-making. eyes (e.g., retinal disparity). o Outcomes: Monocular Cues: Depth cues available to one eye (e.g., linear perspective, ▪ Hit: Correctly identifies the interposition). presence of a stimulus. ▪ Miss: Fails to detect a present stimulus. Chapter 4.3: Hearing and Other Senses ▪ False Alarm: Incorrectly 1. The Auditory Process detects a stimulus that is not present. Sound: Result of vibrating air molecules. ▪ Correct Rejection: Correctly o Frequency: Determines pitch identifies the absence of a (measured in Hz). stimulus. o Amplitude: Determines loudness (measured in dB). Chapter 4.2: Vision 2. Ear Anatomy 1. Light and the Visual Process Outer Ear: Includes the pinna and auditory canal. Light: Electromagnetic radiation perceived by the human eye. Middle Ear: Contains the eardrum and ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup). o Wavelength: Determines color. Inner Ear: Contains the cochlea, where o Amplitude: Determines brightness. sound is transduced into neural signals. 3. Auditory Pathways Chapter 5: Development Sound information travels from the cochlea Chapter 5.1: Cognitive Development in Infancy via the auditory nerve to the brain. and Childhood 4. Theories of Hearing Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Place Theory: Different frequencies Piaget’s stages describe how children’s stimulate different locations on the basilar thinking evolves through four stages: membrane. 1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 Frequency Theory: The rate of neural firing years): matches the frequency of the sound wave. ▪ Infants explore the world 5. Localization of Sound through senses and actions. Determined by timing and intensity ▪ Development of object differences between sounds reaching each permanence (understanding ear. that objects exist even when not visible). 6. Other Senses 2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Touch (Somatosensation): Sensitivity to pressure, warmth, cold, and pain. ▪ Use of symbols and language to represent objects. o Gate Control Theory of Pain: Suggests a "gate" in the spinal cord ▪ Egocentrism: Difficulty can modulate pain signals. seeing perspectives of others. Taste (Gustation): Detected by taste buds, ▪ Lack of conservation perceiving five basic tastes: sweet, sour, (understanding that salty, bitter, and umami. appearance changes do not alter quantity). Smell (Olfaction): Detected by olfactory receptors, closely linked to emotion and 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 memory. years): Vestibular Sense: Maintains balance and ▪ Logical thinking about spatial orientation. concrete objects. 7. Perception of Pain ▪ Grasp of conservation and reversibility (objects can Involves sensory and emotional components; change and return to their influenced by psychological factors and original state). endorphins. 4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): ▪ Ability to think abstractly and hypothesize about situations and ideas. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction in cognitive development. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The difference between what children can do independently and what they can achieve with help. Scaffolding: Support provided by more knowledgeable individuals to help children learn new concepts. Infants’ Cognitive Abilities  Research suggests infants have some 1. Authoritative: High responsiveness cognitive abilities earlier than Piaget and demandingness. Associated with proposed, such as basic numerical positive outcomes. understanding and a developing theory of 2. Authoritarian: Strict and less mind (awareness of others’ thoughts and nurturing. May result in obedient but feelings). less socially skilled children. Contemporary Views on Cognitive Development 3. Permissive: Nurturing but lenient. Cognitive development is seen as more Children may struggle with self- continuous rather than stage-like, with control. biological, environmental, and cultural 4. Uninvolved: Low responsiveness and factors influencing its course. demandingness. Associated with negative outcomes. Chapter 5.2: Social and Emotional Development Temperament and Peer Relationships Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Temperament: Innate traits that influence how children respond emotionally and Erik Erikson proposed eight stages of behaviorally (e.g., easy, difficult, or slow-to- psychosocial development, with each stage warm-up). presenting a conflict that must be resolved: Peer relationships: Play and interactions 1. Infancy (Trust vs. Mistrust): with peers help children develop social skills Developing trust in caregivers. and emotional understanding. 2. Early Childhood (Autonomy vs. Emotional Regulation and Empathy Shame and Doubt): Striving for independence. Emotional regulation: The ability to manage emotions and reactions. It improves with age 3. Preschool Age (Initiative vs. Guilt): and social experience. Asserting control over the environment. Empathy: Developing the ability to understand and share others' emotions. 4. School Age (Industry vs. Inferiority): Secure attachments and positive Developing competence and skills. environments promote empathy and Attachment in Infancy prosocial behavior. Attachment refers to the emotional bond Moral Development between infants and caregivers. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory: Early 1. Preconventional: Focus on rewards attachment influences future emotional and and punishments. social development. 2. Conventional: Adherence to social Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation rules and the approval of others. experiment identified different attachment styles: 3. Postconventional: Guided by abstract principles of justice and 1. Secure: Trust and confidence in ethics. caregiver's availability. Carol Gilligan’s Critique: Kohlberg’s theory 2. Insecure-Avoidant: Indifference is gender-biased. Women’s moral reasoning towards caregiver. often revolves around care and responsibility 3. Insecure-Resistant (Ambivalent): rather than justice. High distress and ambivalence towards caregiver. Chapter 5.3: Diversity: Gender, Culture, and 4. Disorganized: Inconsistent and Family confused behaviors. Gender Differences and Identity Parenting Styles (Diana Baumrind) Sex vs. Gender: Four primary parenting styles impact social and emotional development:  o Sex is biological, while gender is a behaviors can limit opportunities and shape social construct involving roles, expectations. behaviors, and identities. Cultural prejudice: Children often internalize Gender identity: A person’s internal sense of stereotypes based on race, ethnicity, and being male, female, or something else. gender, which can lead to prejudice and Gender identity develops early and is discrimination. influenced by biological and environmental Intersectionality: People experience factors. overlapping social identities (e.g., race, Transgender identity: Transgender gender, class), which shape their individuals face societal challenges, but developmental experiences. psychological well-being improves when their identity is supported. Cultural Influences on Development Individualism vs. Collectivism: o Individualistic cultures focus on personal achievement (e.g., the U.S.), while collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony (e.g., many Asian cultures). Parenting styles and self-concept vary depending on cultural orientation. Acculturation: Immigrant families balance their heritage culture with the new cultural environment. Family Dynamics and Structure Family structures are diverse, including single-parent households, same-sex parents, and blended families. Parenting styles (as covered in Chapter 5.2) play a significant role in children’s emotional and social development. Divorce: While children of divorced parents face challenges, many adjust well with proper support and low parental conflict. Socioeconomic Status (SES): SES influences access to resources, education, and healthcare, impacting children’s development. Gender Roles and Family Parental roles: Traditional gender roles in families are evolving, with more shared caregiving responsibilities between mothers and fathers. Same-sex parenting: Children raised by same-sex parents develop similarly to those raised by heterosexual parents, with the quality of parenting being the key factor. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Intersectionality Gender stereotypes: Commonly held beliefs about male and female abilities and Chapter 6: Learning Acquisition: The initial learning phase where a response is established. The timing and Chapter 6.1: Basic Concepts of Learning pairing of the US and CS are critical. 1. Definition of Learning Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned Learning: A relatively permanent change in response when the CS is presented without behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result the US. of experience. It is not solely based on Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance maturation or temporary states (like fatigue). of a conditioned response after a pause 2. Types of Learning following extinction. Classical Conditioning: Learning through Generalization: The tendency to respond association, where a neutral stimulus similarly to stimuli that are similar to the becomes associated with a meaningful conditioned stimulus. stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response. Discrimination: The learned ability to Operant Conditioning: Learning based on distinguish between similar stimuli and the consequences of behavior, where respond only to the conditioned stimulus. behaviors are strengthened or weakened 3. Applications of Classical Conditioning based on rewards or punishments. Classical conditioning has applications in Observational Learning: Learning by various fields, such as: observing and imitating others, also known as social learning or modeling. o Therapy: Treating phobias (e.g., systematic desensitization). 3. Principles of Learning o Advertising: Associating products Learning occurs in response to specific with positive feelings or experiences. experiences and is influenced by various factors, including: o Motivation: The desire to learn can Chapter 6.3: Operant Conditioning impact the extent and effectiveness of 1. Key Concepts learning. Reinforcement: Any consequence that o Reinforcement: Consequences that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a follow a behavior can affect the behavior. likelihood of that behavior being repeated. o Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., giving a treat for Chapter 6.2: Classical Conditioning completing homework). 1. Key Concepts o Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus behavior (e.g., stopping loud noise that naturally and automatically triggers a when a desired behavior occurs). response (e.g., food). Punishment: Any consequence that weakens Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural or decreases the likelihood of a behavior. response to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation). o Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously behavior (e.g., adding chores for bad neutral stimulus that, after association with behavior). an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (e.g., bell). o Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease Conditioned Response (CR): The learned behavior (e.g., taking away a toy for response to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., misbehavior). salivation in response to the bell). 2. Schedules of Reinforcement 2. Process of Classical Conditioning Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs.  Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Chapter 7: Memory Reinforcing the behavior only some of the Chapter 7.1: Introduction to Memory time, which leads to greater resistance to extinction. Types include: 1. Definition of Memory o Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Memory: The process by which we encode, Reinforcement after a set number of store, and retrieve information. It allows us to responses (e.g., getting a bonus for retain past experiences and knowledge over every 10 sales). time. o Variable-Ratio Schedule: 2. Stages of Memory Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling). Encoding: The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in o Fixed-Interval Schedule: memory. Reinforcement after a specified amount of time has passed (e.g., Storage: The retention of encoded weekly paycheck). information over time. o Variable-Interval Schedule: Retrieval: The process of accessing and Reinforcement after varying amounts bringing stored information into of time (e.g., pop quizzes). consciousness. 3. Applications of Operant Conditioning 3. Types of Memory Behavior Modification: Using operant Sensory Memory: The initial, brief storage of conditioning principles to change behavior, sensory information, lasting a few seconds. commonly applied in education and therapy. o Iconic Memory: Visual sensory Animal Training: Using reinforcement memory. techniques to train animals for various tasks. o Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory 4. Observational Learning memory. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Short-Term Memory (STM): Also known as Emphasizes that learning can occur through working memory; it holds a small amount of observation and imitation, without direct information for a short duration (about 20-30 reinforcement. Key concepts include: seconds). o Attention: Observers must pay o Capacity: Often described by Miller's attention to the model. Law as 7 ± 2 items. o Retention: Observers must Long-Term Memory (LTM): The relatively remember the behavior. permanent storage of information, which can last from minutes to a lifetime. o Reproduction: Observers must be able to reproduce the behavior. o Types of LTM: o Motivation: Observers must have the ▪ Explicit (Declarative) desire to imitate the behavior. Memory: Memories of facts and events that can be consciously recalled. ▪ Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and specific events. ▪ Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts about the world. ▪ Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory: Memories that are not consciously recalled but influence behavior (e.g., skills, habits).  o Encoding Failure: Information was never fully encoded into memory. Chapter 7.2: Memory Processes o Storage Decay: Memories fade over 1. Encoding Processes time if not accessed or rehearsed Attention: Focusing on specific stimuli while (Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve). ignoring others is crucial for effective o Retrieval Failure: Inability to access encoding. stored information due to cues not Levels of Processing: being present or interference. o Shallow Processing: Involves 2. Types of Interference superficial aspects (e.g., appearance Proactive Interference: Old information or sound). interferes with the recall of new information o Deep Processing: Involves semantic (e.g., old passwords affecting memory of new processing (meaning), leading to passwords). better retention. Retroactive Interference: New information 2. Storage Mechanisms interferes with the recall of old information (e.g., learning a new phone number makes it Consolidation: The process of stabilizing a hard to remember the old one). memory trace after initial acquisition, often occurring during sleep. 3. Memory Distortion Neurobiological Basis: Memory formation is False Memories: Memories that people associated with changes in synaptic strength believe to be true but are distorted or (long-term potentiation) and neural fabricated. They can be influenced by pathways. suggestions, leading questions, or misinformation. 3. Retrieval Processes Loftus Studies: Research demonstrating how Recall: Accessing information without cues the wording of questions can alter memory (e.g., essay questions). recall, showing the malleability of memory. Recognition: Identifying previously learned 4. The Role of Emotion in Memory information with cues (e.g., multiple-choice questions). Emotion and Memory: Emotional experiences tend to be remembered more Relearning: The process of learning vividly and accurately. information that has been previously learned and forgotten. Flashbulb Memories: Highly detailed, vivid memories of significant events, often 4. Factors Affecting Memory Retrieval associated with strong emotions (e.g., 9/11). Context Effects: The environment or context in which information is learned can influence retrieval (e.g., studying in the same location as the test). State-Dependent Learning: Retrieval is improved when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as when the memory was encoded (e.g., mood, intoxication). Chapter 7.3: Forgetting and Memory Distortion 1. The Nature of Forgetting Forgetting: The inability to retrieve information from memory. It can occur at any stage of memory processing. Causes of Forgetting: