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Introduction to Psychology - The weakest level of a stimulus that is necessary to produce a sensation. Lesson 7: Sensation and Perception - For example, the absolute threshold...

Introduction to Psychology - The weakest level of a stimulus that is necessary to produce a sensation. Lesson 7: Sensation and Perception - For example, the absolute threshold for light would be the minimum Sensation brightness (physical energy) required to activate the visual - Sensation is the stimulation of sensory system. sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information John B. Watson to the central nervous system. - Sensory receptors are located in Subliminal Threshold sensory organs such as the eyes and ears, the skin, and elsewhere in - Pioneer in associating appealing the body. stimuli with products, as auto ads - Stimulation of the senses is an frequently associate attractive automatic process. people with cars. But most ads make the associations openly. - Sensory stimulation that is below a person’s absolute threshold for Perception conscious perception is termed subliminal stimulation - Perception is an active process in - Visual stimuli can be flashed too which sensations are organized and briefly to enable us to process them. interpreted to form an inner - Auditory stimuli can be played at a representation of the world. volume too low to consciously hear - Perception may begin with or can be played backward sensation, but it also reflects our experiences and expectations as it Ernst Weber makes sense of sensory stimuli. - Your perception of the world of Difference Threshold changing sights, sounds, and other sources of sensory input depends - The minimum difference in largely on the so-called five senses: magnitude of two stimuli required to vision, hearing, smell, taste, and tell them apart is their difference touch threshold. - Sense of touch is just one of several - The threshold for perceiving “skin senses,” which also include differences in the intensity of light is pressure, warmth, cold, and pain. about 2% (actually closer to 1/60th) of their intensity known as Weber’s Gustav Fechner constant for light. - just noticeable difference (jnd) is Absolute Threshold the minimum difference in stimuli that a person can detect.  - If you are strong enough to heft a - Refers to the processes by which we 100-pound barbell, you would not become more sensitive to stimuli of notice that it was heavier until about low magnitude and less sensitive to two pounds were added. stimuli that remain the same, such - People are most sensitive to as the background noises outside changes in the pitch (frequency) of the window. sounds. The Weber constant for - The process of becoming more pitch is 1/333, people can tell when sensitive to stimulation is referred to a tone rises or falls in pitch by an as sensitization, or positive extremely small one-third of 1%. adaptation - On average, people cannot detect - The process of becoming less differences in saltiness of less than sensitive to stimulation is referred to 20%. as desensitization, or negative adaptation. Signal-Detection Theory - Our sensitivities to stimulation provide our brains with information - The relationship between a physical that we use to understand and stimulus and a sensory response is influence the world outside. not fully mechanical. - People’s ability to detect stimuli such Vision as blips on a radar screen depends not only on the intensity of the blips - Our eyes are literally our “windows but also on their training (learning), on the world” motivation (desire to perceive blips), - Because vision is our dominant and psychological states such as sense, blindness is considered by fatigue or alertness. many to be the most debilitating sensory loss David Hubel & Torsten Wiesel Light Feature Detectors in the Brain It is visible light that triggers visual - In 1979, they discovered that various sensations. neurons in the visual cortex of the - Yet visible light is just one small part brain fire in response to particular of a spectrum of electromagnetic features of the visual input. energy that surrounds us - Other cells fire in response to - Cosmic rays: The wavelengths of specific colors. Because they these rays from outer space are only respond to different aspects or a few trillionths of an inch long. features of a scene, these brain cells - Radio waves: Some radio signals are termed feature detectors. extend for miles. - Visible light: Roses are red, and Sensory Adaptation violets are blue. Why? Different colors have different wavelengths, with violet the shortest at about 400  billionths of a meter in length and - Rods are rod-shaped red the longest at 700 billionths of a photoreceptors that are sensitive meter. only to the intensity of light. - Sir Isaac Newton discovered that - Cones are cone-shaped photo- sunlight could be broken down into receptors that transmit sensations of different colors by means of a color. triangular solid of glass called a - Rods allow us to see in black and prism. white. Cones provide color vision. - The wavelength of visible light - Blind spot is the part of the retina determines its color, or hue. where the axons of the ganglion - The wavelength for red is longer cells converge to form the optic than the wavelength for orange, and nerve. so on through the spectrum. - Visual acuity (sharpness of vision) is connected with the shape of the The Eye eye. - People who have to be unusually - Iris is a muscular membrane whose close to an object to discriminate its dilation regulates the amount of light details are nearsighted. that enters the eye. - People who see distant objects - Pupil is the black-looking opening in unusually clearly but have difficulty the center of the iris, through which focusing on nearby objects are light enters the eye. farsighted. - Lens is a transparent body behind - Presbyopia makes it difficult to the iris that focuses an image on the perceive nearby visual stimuli. retina. - People who had normal visual acuity - Retina is the area of the inner in their youth often require corrective surface of the eye that contains rods lenses to read in middle adulthood, and cones. - Photoreceptors are cells that Light Adaptation respond to light. - Bipolar Cells are neurons that - The process of adjusting to lower conduct neural impulses from rods lighting is called dark adaptation. and cones to ganglion cells. - The amount of light needed for - Ganglion Cells are neurons whose detection is a function of the amount axons form the optic nerve. of time spent in the dark. The cones - Optic Nerve is the nerve that and rods adapt at different rates. transmits sensory information from - The cones, which permit perception the eye to the brain. of color, reach their maximum - Fovea an area near the center of the adaptation to darkness in about 10 retina that is dense with cones and minutes. where vision is consequently most - The rods, which allow perception of acute. light and dark only, are more sensitive to dim light and continue to adapt for 45 minutes or so. Color Vision - Therefore, staring at the green, black, and yellow flag for 30 seconds - The wavelength of light determines will disturb the balance of neural its color, or hue. activity. - The value of a color is its degree of brightness or darkness. Color Blindness - The saturation refers to how intense a color appears to us. A fire- - If you can discriminate among the engine red is more saturated than a colors of the visible spectrum, you pale pinkish-red. have normal color vision and are - In USA, a bride may be dressed in labeled a trichromat. white as a sign of purity. - People who are totally color–blind, - In traditional India, the guests would called monochromats, are sensitive be shocked, because white is the only to lightness and darkness. Total color for funerals. color blindness is rare. - In the Philippines, we mourn in - Monochromats might put on socks of black. any color. They would not notice a difference as long as the socks’ Theories of Color Vision colors did not differ in intensity— that is, brightness. - Trichromatic theory is based on an - Partial color blindness is a sex- experiment conducted by the British linked trait that affects mostly males. scientist Thomas Young in the early - Partially color-blind people are called 1800s. dichromats. - He found that he could create any - They can discriminate only between color in the visible spectrum by two colors—red and green or blue varying the intensities of the three and yellow—and the colors that are lights. derived from mixing these colors - Hermann von Helmholtz saw in - A dichromat might put on one red Young’s discovery an explanation of sock and one green sock, but would color vision. Helmholtz suggested not mix red and blue socks.. that the retina in the eye must have three different types of color Visual Perception photoreceptors or cones. (Red, Green, and Blue) - Visual perception is the process by - Ewald Hering proposed the which we organize or make sense of opponent–process theory of color the sensory impressions caused by vision. There are three types of color the light that strikes our eyes. receptors, but they are not sensitive - Visual perception involves our only to red, green, and blue. knowledge, expectations, and - According to Hering, a red–green motivations. Whereas sensation may cone cannot transmit messages for be thought of as a mechanical red and green at the same time. process.  - The principle of closure is the Perceptual Constancies tendency to perceive a complete or whole figure even when there are - Perceptual constancies enable us to gaps in the sensory input. recognize the characteristics of - According to the law of common objects even when their apparent fate, elements seen moving together size, color, brightness, and shape are perceived as belonging together. differ from the norm. - A group of people running in the - Size constancy is the tendency to same direction appears unified in perceive an object as the same size purpose. even though the size of its image on your retina varies as a function of its Top-Down vs Bottom-Up Processing distance. - Color constancy is the tendency to - You are using top-down perceive objects as retaining their processing when, you are using the color even though lighting conditions completed image to search for the may alter their appearance. proper pieces. - Brightness constancy is similar to - We may form more lasting color constancy. If it were nighttime, relationships when we search with we would expect yellows and an idea of the qualities we will find oranges to fade to gray. compatible in another person. - Shape constancy is the tendency to - We may make better investments perceive objects as maintaining their when we have a retirement financial shape, even if we look at them from goal and date in mind different angles so that the shape of - In bottom-up processing, we begin their image on the retina changes with bits and pieces of information dramatically. and try to assemble them in a pattern. Hearing - We do not have a clear idea of where we are going, and perhaps - Sound, or auditory stimulation, is we try to make the best of things. the vibration of molecules in a medium such as air or water. Perception of Motion - The human ear is sensitive to sound waves with frequencies of from 20 to - The visual perception of movement 20,000 cycles per second. is based on change of position relative to other objects. Pitch and Loudness - To early scientists, whose only tool for visual observation was the naked - The pitch of a sound is determined eye, it seemed logical that the sun by its frequency, or the number of circled the earth. cycles per second as expressed in the unit hertz (Hz). - Pitch detectors in the brain allow us to tell differences in pitch.  - The loudness of a sound roughly frequency of the sound waves with corresponds to the height, or our neural impulses. amplitude, of sound waves. - Appears to account only for pitch - The loudness of a sound is perception between 20 and a few expressed in decibels (dB). hundred cycles per second. - Zero dB is equivalent to the threshold of hearing Deafness Locating Sounds - Conductive deafness stems from damage to the structures of the - A sound coming from the right also middle ear to the sound waves from reaches the right ear first. Both the outer ear to the inner ear. loudness and the sequence in which - Sensorineural deafness usually the sounds reach the ears provide stems from damage to the structures directional cues. of the inner ear, most often the loss - Cochlea is the inner ear; the bony of hair cells. tube that contains the basilar membrane and the organ of Corti. Smell and Taste - Basilar Membrane is a membrane that lies coiled within the cochlea. - Smell and taste are the chemical - Organ of Corti is the receptor for sense. hearing that lies on the basilar - Smell has an important role in membrane in the cochlea human behavior. - Auditory Nerve is the axon bundle - It contributes to the flavor of foods, that transmits neural impulses from for example. the organ of Corti to the brain. - An odor is a sample of molecules of a substance in the air. Place Theory - Odors trigger firing of receptor neurons in the olfactory membrane - Holds that the pitch of a sound is high in each nostril. sensed according to the place along - The receptor neurons transmit the basilar membrane that vibrates information about odors to the brain in response to it. via the olfactory nerve. - The higher the pitch of a sound, the - Taste is sensed through taste closer the responsive neurons lie to cells—receptor neurons located on the oval window. However, place taste buds. theory appears to apply only to - You have about 10,000 taste buds, pitches that are at least 4,000 Hz most of which are located near the edges and back of your tongue. Frequency Theory - Buds in the mouth are evolutionarily adaptive because they can warn of - Notes that for us to perceive lower bad food before it is swallowed. pitches, we need to match the - Flavor depends on odor, texture, and temperature as well as on taste.  - Primary taste qualities: sweet, sour, the brain and heighten circulation to salty, and bitter. the injured area. - Researchers historically agreed on - Evolutionary psychologists would four primary taste qualities: They point out that pain is adaptive, if have recently added a new basic unpleasant, because it motivates us taste to the list: umami, which is to do something about it. pronounced ooh-mommy in - It causes the redness and swelling Japanese and means “meaty” or that we call inflammation. “savory” Inflammation attracts infection- fighting blood cells to the injury to The Skin Senses protect it against invading germs. - Touch and Pressure Is there perception without sensation? - Active touching means continuously moving your hand - ESP (Extra-sensory Perception) also along the surface of an object so referred to as parapsychological or that you continue to receive sensory psi phenomena—refers to the input from the object. perception of objects or events - The parts of the body that “cover” through means other than the known more than their fair share of sensory organs. somatosensory cortex are most - Parapsychological (psi) means sensitive to touch. standing alongside psychology, not - These parts include the hands, face, being a part of psychology. and some other regions of the body. - Psychological communication occurs - Temperature - When skin verbally or by means of body temperature increases, the receptors language. for warmth fire. Decreases in skin - Telepathy or direct communication temperature cause receptors for cold between minds happens when one to fire. person acts as a “sender” and the - Sensations of temperature are other as a “receiver.” relative. When we are at normal - Extrasensory perception also has body temperature, we might the flavor of a nightclub act in which perceive another person’s skin as a blindfolded “clairvoyant” calls out warm. the contents of an audience - Pain - People aged 65 and above member’s pocketbook. are most likely to attribute pain to - The sender views randomly selected getting older. visual stimuli such as photographs - Pain results when neurons called or videotapes, while the receiver, nociceptors in the skin are who is in another room and whose stimulated. eyes are covered and ears are - Pain usually originates at the point of blocked, tries to mentally tune in to contact, as when you bang a knee. the sender. - Prostaglandins facilitate transmission of the pain message to Lesson 8: State of Consciousness - Selective attention means focusing one’s consciousness on a particular “How do neurons turn into mind? How does stimulus. physical stuff—atoms, molecules, - Selective attention is a key to self- chemicals, and cells—create the vivid living control. worlds inside our heads?” - Adaptation to our environment involves learning which stimuli must When you talk to yourself, who talks, and be attended to and which can be who listens? safely ignored. - Cocktail party effect - In 1904 William James wrote an - To keep your car on the road, you article with the intriguing title “Does must pay more attention to driving Consciousness Exist?” James did conditions than to your hunger not think consciousness was a pangs or a cellphone call. proper area of study for - Direct inner awareness is the psychologists because scientific knowledge of one’s own thoughts, methods could not directly observe feelings, and memories without the or measure another person’s use of sensory organs. consciousness. John Watson, the - Self-awareness is connected with “father of modern behaviorism,” the firing of billions of neurons agreed. Watson insisted that only hundreds of times per second. observable, measurable behavior is the province of psychology: “The Preconscious time seems to have come when psychology must discard all - The material is not currently in references to consciousness” awareness but is readily available. - What did you eat for breakfast? Consciousness as Awareness - What is your phone number? - You can make these preconscious - Mental concepts such as bits of information conscious by consciousness acquire scientific directing your attention to them. status by being tied to observable - Sigmund Freud, the founder of behavior whenever possible. psychoanalysis, differentiated - The sense of vision enables us to between thoughts and feelings of see or be conscious of the sun which we are conscious and those gleaming on the snow. that are preconscious and - The sense of hearing allows us to unconscious. hear or be conscious of a concert. - Sometimes we are not aware of Unconscious sensory stimulation. We may Be unaware, or unconscious, of sensory - Unavailable to awareness under stimulation when we do not pay most circumstances. attention to it. - Painful memories and sexual and aggressive impulses are  unacceptable to us, so we Sleep and Dreams automatically (unconsciously) eject them from awareness. - A circadian rhythm is a cycle that is - Repression of these memories and connected with the 24-hour period of impulses allows us to avoid feelings the earth’s rotation. A cycle of of anxiety, guilt, or shame. wakefulness and sleep is normally - Suppression happens when we 24 hours long. consciously eject unwanted mental - We typically undergo a series of 90- events from awareness. minute cycles in which we run - Thoughts of an upcoming party through the stages of sleep. when e need to study for a test. - Sleep is a fascinating topic. After all, - Suppress thoughts of the test while we spend about one-third of our we are at the party. adult lives asleep. Sleep experts - Nonconscious processes cannot recommend that adults get seven to be experienced through sensory nine hours of sleep a night. awareness or direct inner - In the morning, the shining sun awareness. adjusts the timing of the circadian - Growing hair and carrying oxygen in clock by activating proteins in the the blood retinas of the eyes. - The proteins then signal tiny Consciousness: Personal Unity structures in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic - We differentiate ourselves from that nucleus (SCN). which is not us. - In turn, the SCN stimulates the - We develop a sense of being pineal gland to decrease its output of people, individuals. the hormone melatonin (melatonin - There is a totality to our impressions, promotes sleep). thoughts, and feelings that make up - Some of us, known as “morning our consciousness people,” function best in the - Continuing sense of self in the world morning; others function best in the that self-forms intentions and guides afternoon. Some of us are “night behavior owls,” who are at our best when most neighbors are sound asleep. Consciousness: The Waking State - When we are conscious, our brains emit waves characterized by certain - The waking state as opposed, for frequencies (numbers of waves per example, to sleep. second) and amplitudes (heights— - Sleep, meditation, hypnotic “trance,” an index of strength). and the distorted perceptions can - The strength, or energy, of brain accompany use of consciousness- waves is expressed in volts (an altering drugs are considered electrical unit). When we sleep, our altered states of consciousness. brain waves differ from those emitted when we are conscious.  - When we sleep, we slip from - sex—a view with which most consciousness to unconsciousness. modern psychologists, as we will - Brain waves are rough indicators of see, disagree. the activity of large numbers of - In any event, dreams are most likely neurons. to be vivid during REM sleep, - High-frequency brain waves are whereas images are vaguer and associated with wakefulness. As we more fleeting during NREM sleep. move deeper into sleep, their frequency decreases and their Dreams: Residue of the Day amplitude (strength) increases. When we close our eyes and begin - You may recall dreams involving to relax before going to sleep, our fantastic adventures, but most brains emit alpha waves— low- dreams involve memories of the amplitude brain waves of about 8 to activities and problems of the day. 13 cycles per second. - According to the continuity hypothesis, if we are preoccupied Dreams with illness or death, sexual or aggressive urges, or moral - According to Bulkley (2013): dilemmas, we are likely to dream - Artists are more likely than other about them people to have nightmares. - The characters in our dreams are - Children are more likely than adults more likely to be friends and to dream about animals. neighbors than spies, monsters, and - Younger people are more likely to princes—subjects that have been have dreams in which they know referred to, poetically, as “the they are dreaming. residue of the day. - Nonreligious people have more - People with frequent nightmares are dreams than highly religious people. also more likely than others to have - According to Nielsen (2003): anxiety, depression, and other - 82% dream of being chased psychological problems. - 74% dream of falling - 60% dream that they are too late to Dreams: Expression of Conscious do something such as catch a train Desires - 77% dream of sex - 48% dream of flying (which Sigmund - Freud theorized that dreams reflect Freud believed symbolized sexual unconscious wishes and urges. He intercourse) argued that dreams express - 37% dream of being a child again impulses we would censor during (ah, to be free?) the day. - The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, - The content of dreams is symbolic of as a matter of fact, believed that unconscious fantasized objects such nearly all dreams had something to as the genitals. do with The Activation-synthesis Model of occur while driving or working with Dreams sharp tools. - They may be accompanied by the - According to the activation– collapse of muscle synthesis model, acetylcholine and - groups or the entire body—a pons stimulate responses that lead condition called sleep paralysis. to dreaming. - Sleep Apnea - The air passages are - The activation of the reticular obstructed. formation, which arouses us, but not - People with apnea stop breathing to waking. periodically, up to several hundred - During the waking state, firing of times per night. these cells is linked to movement, - Sleep terrors - Also called night particularly the movements in terrors are similar to, but more walking, running, and other physical severe than, nightmares, which acts. But during REM sleep, occur during REM sleep. neurotransmitters tend to inhibit - Sleep terrors usually occur during activity, so we usually do not thrash the first two sleep cycles of the night, about as we dream whereas nightmares are more likely to occur toward morning. Sleep Disorders - Obstruction may cause the sleeper to sit up and gasp for air before - Insomnia - Older adults are more falling back asleep. Sleep apnea is likely than younger adults to have associated with obesity and chronic insomnia because of a greater snoring. incidence of poor health and pain— - It can lead to high blood pressure, factors that may make it more heart attacks, and strokes. difficult to get comfortable in bed. - Sleep apnea is treated by such - Narcolepsy - A person with measures as weight loss, surgery, narcolepsy falls asleep suddenly. and continuous positive airway - In sleep paralysis, the person cannot pressure (CPAP), which is supplied move during the transition from by a mask that provides air pressure consciousness to sleep, and that keeps the airway open during hallucinations. sleep. - Stimulants and antidepressant drugs - Sleep terrors, experiencing a surge have helped many people with the in the heart and respiration rates, the problem person may suddenly sit up, talk - The term sleep disorder is reserved incoherently, and thrash about. He for other problems that can seriously or she is never fully awake, returns interfere with our functioning. to sleep, and may recall a vague - The “sleep attack” may last 15 image as of someone pressing on minutes or so, after which the his or her chest. person feels refreshed. - Bedwetting - Reflects immaturity of Nevertheless, sleep attacks are the nervous system. In most cases, dangerous and upsetting. They can  it resolves itself before adolescence, - Hypnosis as an aid in relaxation often by age eight. training also helps people cope with - The drug imipramine often helps. stress and enhance the functioning - Somnambulism (Sleep Walking) - of their immune systems Sleepwalkers typically do not - The state of consciousness called remember their excursions, although the hypnotic trance has traditionally they may respond to questions while been induced by asking people to they are up and about. Mild narrow their attention to a small light, tranquilizers and maturity typically a spot on the wall, an object held by put an end to it. the hypnotist, or the hypnotist’s - Methods that condition children to voice. awaken when they are about to - People who are easily hypnotized urinate have been helpful. are said to have hypnotic - Sometimes all that is needed is suggestibility. reassurance that no one is to blame - Part of “suggestibility” is knowledge for bedwetting and that most of what is expected during the children outgrow it. “trance state.” - Generally speaking, suggestible Altering Consciousness: Hypnosis people are prone to fantasy and want to cooperate with the - The word hypnosis is derived from hypnotism. the Greek word for sleep which is an - According to Freud, hypnotized altered state of consciousness in - adults permit themselves to return to which people are suggestible and childish modes of responding that behave as though they are in a emphasize fantasy and impulse trance. rather than fact and logic. - Franz Mesmer asserted that - Theodore Sarbin offers a role everything in the universe was theory view of hypnosis connected by forms of magnetism. - He points out that the changes in - Some psychologists use hypnosis to behavior attributed to the hypnotic help clients reduce anxiety, trance can be successfully imitated overcome fears, or lessen the when people are instructed to perception of chronic pain. behave as though they were - However, he also claimed that hypnotized. people, too, could be drawn to one - The response set theory of another by “animal magnetism.” Not hypnosis is related to role theory. so. - It suggests that expectations play a - Mesmer used bizarre props to bring role in the production of experiences people under his “spell” and suggested by the hypnotist managed a respectable cure rate for - For example, people can lie rigid minor ailments. Scientists now between two chairs whether they are attribute his successes to the hypnotized or not. placebo effect, not animal - Also, people cannot be hypnotized magnetism. unless they are familiar with the  hypnotic “role”—the behavior that but there are also measurable constitutes the trance. Sarbin is goals, such as reducing anxiety and suggesting that people allow lowering blood pressure. themselves to enact this role under - MM provides clients with mantra-like the hypnotist’s directions. techniques they can use to focus on - A positive response to each the present moment rather than suggestion of the hypnotist sets the ruminate about problems. MM holds stage—creates a response set—in promise for helping clients cope with which the subject is more likely to problems such as anxiety as well as follow further suggestions. reducing stress. - Role theory and response set theory appear to be supported by research Altering Consciousness: Biofeedback evidence that “suggestible” people want to be hypnotized, are good role - Neal Miller (1969) implanted players, have vivid imaginations, and electrodes in the rats’ pleasure know what is expected of them. centers. Some rats were then given a burst of electricity whenever their Altering Consciousness: Meditation heart rates happened to increase. - Other rats received the burst when - the act or process of thinking. their heart rates decreased. After a - The concept usually suggests 90-minute training session, the rats thinking deeply about the universe or learned to alter their heart rates by about one’s place in the world, often as much as 20% in the direction for within a spiritual context. which they had been rewarded. - A process by which people seem to - Psychologist Neal E. Miller trained suspend thinking and allow the world laboratory rats to increase or to fade away. decrease their heart rates. How? - rituals, exercises, even passive His procedure was simple but observation. ingenious. - Transcendental meditation (TM), - As discovered by James Olds and was brought to the United States by Peter Milner, there is a “pleasure the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, center” in the rat’s hypothalamus. A concentrates on mantras. small burst of electricity in this center - Mindfulness meditation (MM) in is strongly reinforcing: Rats learn to cognitive and behavior therapy. MM, do what they can, such as pressing as opposed to TM, makes no a lever, to obtain this “reward.” pretense of achieving spiritual goals - Biofeedback is a system that - Mantras —words or sounds that are provides, or “feeds back,” claimed to help the person achieve information about a bodily function an altered state of consciousness. through EMG (electromyograph). - TM has some goals that cannot be - Miller used electrical stimulation of assessed scientifically, such as the brain to feed back information to expanding consciousness to rats when they had engaged in a encompass spiritual experiences, targeted bodily response—in this  case, raised or lowered their heart restlessness, rapid pulse, and high rates. blood pressure. - BFT is used in many ways, including - When going without a substance, helping people combat stress, people with substance use disorders tension, and anxiety. experience cravings, an intense urges to use the drug, typically Altering Consciousness: Drugs accompanied by signs of anxiety such as shakiness, rapid pulse, and - The DSM-5 defines a substance sweating. use disorder in terms of behavioral, - People withdrawing from chronic cognitive, and biological symptoms alcohol use may experience delirium or factors. tremens heavy sweating, - With repeated use of many restlessness, disorien?tation, and substances, there are changes in frightening hallucinations— often of “brain circuitry” that are connected crawling animals. with impaired control over use of the - A substance use disorder is substance, social problems, risky characterized by loss of control over behavior, and biological factors one’s use of the substance. suggestive of addiction. - People may organize their lives - People who miss school or work around getting and using a because they are drunk or are substance. “sleeping it off,” might have a - Tolerance is the body’s habituation substance use disorder. Excessive to a substance so that, with regular drinking may suggest a disorder usage, higher doses are needed to because it is associated with health achieve similar effects. problems such as heart failure, traffic accidents, and interpersonal Causal Factors in SUD problems such as rape. - A substance use disorder is - People experiment with drugs for characterized by loss of control over various reasons, including curiosity, one’s use of the substance. conformity to peer pressure, parental - People may organize their lives use, rebelliousness, escape from around getting and using a boredom or pressure, or to attain substance. excitement and pleasure. - Tolerance is the body’s habituation - Use of a substance may be to a substance so that, with regular reinforced by peers or by the drug’s usage, higher doses are needed to positive effects on mood and its achieve similar effects. reduction of anxiety, fear, and stress - Abstinence syndrome is - Many people use drugs as self- characteristic group of withdrawal medication for anxiety, depression, symptoms—when the level of usage and even low self-esteem. of a substance suddenly drops off. - Parents who use drugs may - Withdrawal symptoms for alcohol increase their children’s knowledge include anxiety, tremors, of drugs. For example, the biological  children of alcoholics who are reared dehydrogenase—that metabolizes by adoptive parents seem more alcohol in the stomach than men do. likely to develop alcohol-related - Opiates are a group of narcotics problems than the biological children derived from the opium poppy, from of the adoptive parents. An inherited which they obtain their name. tendency toward alcoholism may - The ancient Sumerians gave the involve greater sensitivity to alcohol opium poppy its name: It means (i.e., greater enjoyment of it) and “plant of joy.” greater tolerance of it. - Heroin can provide a strong euphoric “rush.” Users claim that it is Depressants so pleasurable it can eradicate thoughts of food or sex. - Depressant drugs generally act by - Opioids are similar in chemical slowing the activity of the central structure but made in a laboratory. nervous system. - Opiates include morphine, heroin, - Alcohol is our dinnertime relaxant, codeine, demerol, and similar drugs. our bedtime sedative, and our social The major medical application of facilitator at cocktail parties. opiates is relief from pain. - It is the all-purpose medicine you - High doses can cause drowsiness can buy without a prescription. and stupor, alter time perception, - It is the relief from anxiety, and impair judgment. With regular depression, or loneliness that you use of opiates, the brain stops can swallow in public without producing neurotransmitters that are criticism or stigma. chemically similar to opiates—the - We usealcohol to celebrate holy pain-relieving endorphins. days, applaud our accomplishments, - Withdrawal syndromes may begin and express joyous wishes. The with flu-like symptoms and progress young assert their maturity with through tremors, cramps, chills alcohol. Alcohol is used at least alternating with sweating, rapid occasionally by the majority of high pulse, high blood pressure, school and college students. insomnia, vomiting, and diarrhea. - Excessive drinking has been linked - Heroin was once used as a cure for to lower productivity, loss of addiction to morphine. Now we have employment, and downward methadone, an addictive synthetic movement in social status. opioid that is used to treat - Binge drinking—defined as having physiological dependence on heroin. five or more drinks in a row for a - Methadone is slower acting than male, or four or more, for a female— heroin and does not provide the is connected with aggressive thrilling rush, but it does prevent behavior, poor grades, sexual withdrawal symptoms. promiscuity, and accidents. - Barbiturates are popular as street - Women seem more affected by drugs because they are relaxing and alcohol because they have less of produce mild euphoria. an enzyme— aldehyde  - High doses result in drowsiness, - Cocaine apparently works by binding motor impairment, slurred speech, to sites on sending neurons that irritability, and poor judgment. normally reup?take molecules of the - A highly physiologically dependent neurotransmitters norepinephrine, person who is withdrawn abruptly dopamine, and serotonin. from barbiturates may experience - As a result, molecules of these convulsions and die. Because of transmitters remain longer in the additive effects, it is dangerous to synaptic cleft, enhancing their mood- mix alcohol and other depressants. altering effects and producing a “rush.” But when cocaine levels Stimulants drop, lower absorption of neurotransmitters by receiving - Stimulants increase the activity of neurons causes the user’s mood to the nervous system. “crash. - Amphetamines are a group of - Cocaine may be brewed from coca stimulants that were first used by leaves as a “tea,” snorted in powder soldiers during World War II to help form, or injected in liquid form. them stay alert at night. - Repeated snorting constricts blood - Often abused for the euphoric rush vessels in the nose, drying the skin that high doses can produce. and sometimes exposing cartilage - Methedrine, the strongest form, into and perforating the nasal septum. their veins. - ure, which constricts the coronary - Some people swallow arteries and decreases the oxygen amphetamines in pill form or inject supply to the heart, and quickens the liquid. heart rate, events that can lead to - As a result, they may stay awake respiratory and cardiovascular and high for days on end. But such collapse, as in the sudden deaths of highs must end. People who have some young athletes. been on prolonged highs sometimes - Nicotine is the stimulant in tobacco “crash,” or fall into a deep sleep or smoke. Nicotine stimulates depression. Some commit suicide discharge of the hormone adrenaline when crashing. and the release of neurotransmitters, - Stimulants such as Ritalin and including dopamine, acetylcholine, Adderall are widely used to treat GABA, and endorphins. attention-deficit/ hyperactivity - The hydrocarbons, or tars, in disorder (ADHD) in children. cigarette and cigar smoke lead to - They have been shown to increase lung cancer. the attention span, decrease - Cigarette smoking also stiffens aggressive and disruptive behavior, arteries and is linked to death from and lead to academic gains. heart disease, chronic lung and - Cocaine is a stimulant that produces respiratory diseases, and other euphoria, reduces hunger, deadens health problems. pain, and boosts self-confidence. - Adrenaline creates a burst of autonomic activity that accelerates  the heart rate and pours sugar into empathy for others. Time seems to the blood. slow. - Acetylcholine is vital in memory - A song might seem to last an hour formation, and nicotine appears to rather than minutes. enhance memory and attention; - There is increased awareness of improve performance on simple, bodily sensations such as repetitive tasks; and enhance the - heartbeat. Marijuana users also mood. report that strong intoxication - Although it is a stimulant, because of heightens sexual sensations. GABA and endorphins, nicotine has - Visual hallucinations may occur, and a relaxing effect. It depresses the strong intoxication may cause appetite and raises the metabolic disorientation. If the smoker’s mood rate. Thus, some people smoke is euphoric, disorientation may be cigarettes to control their weight. interpreted as “harmony” with the - Symptoms of withdrawal include universe, but some users find nervousness, drowsiness, loss of disorientation threatening and fear energy, headaches, irregular bowel they will not regain their identity. movements, lightheadedness, - Strong intoxication can cause insomnia, dizziness, cramps, nausea and vomiting. Regular users palpitations, tremors, and sweating. may experience tolerance and withdrawal symptom Hallucinogenics - LSD is the abbreviation for lysergic acid diethylamide, a synthetic - Hallucinogenics are so named hallucinogen. Users of “acid” claim because they produce that it “expands consciousness” and hallucinations—that is, sensations opens up new worlds to them. and perceptions in the absence of - The experiencing of flashbacks is external stimulation. more technically termed - Hallucinogenics may also have hallucinogen persisting additional effects such as relaxation, perception disorder (HPPD). euphoria, or, in some cases, panic. - A psychological explanation of - Marijuana is a substance that is “flashbacks” is that people who produced from the Cannabis sativa would use LSD regularly are also plant, which grows wild in many more likely to allow flights of fancy. parts of the world. Marijuana helps - Sometimes people say they have some people relax and can elevate achieved great insights while using their mood. LSD, but when it wears off they - The major psychedelic substance in cannot apply or recall them. LSD marijuana is delta-9 produces vivid, colorful tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC. hallucinations - Moderate to strong intoxication is - Other hallucinogens include linked to reports of sharpened mescaline (derived from the peyote perceptions, increases in self- cactus) and phencyclidine (PCP). insight, creative thinking, and PCP was developed as an  anesthetic and an animal tranquilizer. - It goes by the street names “angel dust,” “ozone,” “wack,” and “rocket fuel.” The street terms “killer joints” and “crystal super grass” refer to PCP combined with marijuana. - Regular use of hallucinogens may lead to tolerance and psychological dependence, but hallucinogens are not known to create physiological dependence. - High doses may impair coordination, cloud judgment, change the mood, and cause frightening hallucinations and paranoid delusions -