Psych Midterm Review Sheet PDF

# PSYCH MIDTERM REVIEW SHEET ## What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, and what do psychologists have to say about this? The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is explained in the chapter about memory, Chapter 7. It is important to memory because it explains a phenomenon that occurs within memory ret...

# PSYCH MIDTERM REVIEW SHEET ## What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, and what do psychologists have to say about this? The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is explained in the chapter about memory, Chapter 7. It is important to memory because it explains a phenomenon that occurs within memory retrieval. The specific definition in the textbook is “the `experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it`”. An example that is also given in the textbook was when researchers asked a sample of people to think of the word that means “`to give up the throne`” and 10 percent of the time, the participants reported experiencing a tip-of-the-tongue experience. The participants couldn't think of the actual word but could answer questions about it such as how many syllables it had, or what letter the word started with. An interesting fact that psychologists have found out about TOT phenomenon is that usually, when people are going through it, they have a `positivity bias` toward the subject. This might have something to do with the excitement that comes with the feeling of the answer being so close to their grasp. An additional fun fact about the TOT phenomenon is that when people experience it, they are typically correct on the actual answer to the question that they are being prompted with. ## Describe the three elements of sound. The three elements of sound can be found in Chapter 4, “`Sensation and Perception: How We Sense and Conceptualize the World`”. They are particularly important to this chapter because they describe the different parts that make up what sound is. They are the defining factors of sound and how we perceive it. The three elements are as follows: pitch, loudness, and timbre. The textbook defines pitch as “`the frequency of the wave`”. Loudness is defined as the “`amplitude or height of the sound wave, measured in decibels`”. Timbre’s textbook definition is the “`complexity or quality of sound that makes musical instruments, humans, or other sources sound unique`”. A good example of pitch would be the difference between something you can normally hear and a dog whistle. As the pitch of a sound goes up, humans become incapable of perceiving the sound while dogs can still pick up on the frequency. A general example of loudness would be to think about the exposure you feel to any sound. This would be represented by the difference between the sound coming from a vacuum cleaner and the sound coming from a rock concert. As loudness increases, there is risk that comes with the exposure to the heightened decibels. Humans begin to feel pain at about `125dB`. Finally, an example of timbre, the lesser known of the elements, would be the difference between two persons’ voices and being able to distinguish between the two, recognizing them specifically as a certain person. ## Chapter 1 describes how science, and psychology, is largely a safeguard against human biases. That is, humans tend to think in certain ways that make us vulnerable to biases. What are all the examples and terms does the textbook give that explain why we can't trust our common sense? In Chapter 1.1, psychology and science are discussed as safeguards against human biases. This is important because it separates science versus intuition which helps us naturally think in ways that make us vulnerable to errors in judgment. The textbook highlights several examples and terms that explain why we can’t always trust our common sense. * **Naive realism:** the belief that we see the world precisely as it is. Some examples include “the earth seems flat”, “the sun seems to revolve around the earth”. We assume that “`seeing is believing`” and trust our intuitive perceptions of the world and ourselves. Yet appearances can sometimes be deceiving and fool us. * **Confirmation bias:** the tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them. Because of confirmation bias, our perceptions often lead us to focus on evidence that bolsters our beliefs, resulting in psychological tunnel vision. * **Belief perseverance:** the tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them. Even when informed that we’re wrong, we don’t completely wipe our mental slates clean and start from scratch. An example could be a person with political beliefs. * **Metaphysical claim:** the assertion about the world that’s not testable. These examples demonstrate how human thinking is naturally flawed, and why we need scientific methods to check our biases and arrive at accurate conclusions. Metaphysical claims include assertions about the existence of God, the soul, and the afterlife. These claims differ from scientific claims in that we could never test them using scientific methods. ## Describe the cocktail party effect In chapter 4.1 Sensation and perception, this topic is important because it relates to the role of attention. The cocktail party effect is a phenomenon which reflects the ability to hone in on stimuli, such as a conversation we’re engaged in, while we filter out other stimuli such as music or other conversations in a noisy room. An exception to this rule is such as when we suddenly hear our own name mentioned in a separate conversation elsewhere in the room. This finding tells us that the filter inside our brain selects what it will and won’t receive our attention. Similar to an off and on signal (we process auditory information but that we only pay attention to the information that is most relevant to us). ## 1. There are three main theories as to why humans dream. Describe these, and specifically describe how you would talk about a dream if you subscribed primarily to each theory. The main dream theories are described in "Section 2: Dreams" of "Chapter 5: Consciousness" in the textbook. Dreams are important because they give possible insight to our unconscious mind and raise many questions about what makes up consciousness itself. The textbook highlights how dreams are a universal experience, spanning across all people and cultures. It also mentions that dreams are often more biased towards negative emotions and content. The textbook describes three main theories as to why we dream in the first place: Freud’s Dream Protection Theory, Activation-Synthesis Theory, and Neurocognitive Theory. The other night, I had a dream about getting into a huge fight with my suite mate while I was trying to throw a birthday party for my roommate with Glen Powell. * **Freud's Dream Protection Theory:** I would believe that this dream was due to my ego’s reduced ability to repress my aggressive instincts while I am sleeping. The dream of me fighting my suite mate is meant to protect me from those instincts bubbling up outside of my conscious, and fulfill my wish to fight her in a safe space. Freud also thought that dreams require a lot of interpretation to figure them out, and many issues appear symbolically. The seemingly random details of the dream are known as the manifest content, while the true uncovered meanings behind them is the latent content. In this case, Glen Powell would be manifest content in my dream, and the latent content could be my feelings of annoyance at my suite mate for trying to stop me from talking to guys when going out. However, as is the problem with Freud’s theory, a lot of that is obvious in the manifest content itself. There are symbols present, but most of it is straightforward, like me fighting my suite mate. * **Activation-Synthesis Theory:** I would think that my dream was merely my cerebral cortex trying to make sense of the random signals sent over by the pons. The dream was unpleasant because of the ramping up of amygdala, not any hidden meanings about my life. I also had a dwindling ability to have reflective thought since I had decrease amounts of serotonin. * **Neurocognitive theory:** I would realize that the dream was my brain trying to work out real life problems and the scenarios that could come with each solution. It was setting me up for the threatening event of having a conflict with my suite mate and also for the threatening event of planning a good birthday party for my roommate’s upcoming birthday. ## 2) How does the brain change throughout development? The earliest form of implicit memory that is present in children is habituation, which can be recorded at about `32 weeks`. As they grow older, their memory becomes stronger, up until a dip again as they can experience age-induced memory loss. Memory strengthens as they age, and the speed of which it does is also correlated with physical growth factors such as height and shoe size. Additionally, as children learn more about the world, they are able to use that conceptual understanding to remember more. Another development is increased meta-memory, which is knowledge about our own limitations. Children will be fully confident in their memory but are often very inaccurate, while this reverses as they grow. The textbook gives an example of an experiment by Rovee-Collier, in which babies at different ages were conditioned to kick their feet to move a mobile, and then tested at a later date to see if they remembered. Younger babies forgot after a few days, but the older they were, the longer they remembered, showing that memory increases with age. It also claims that most memories before the age of two are lost forever because of infantile amnesia. There are many pseudoscientific claims that refute this, but there is no evidence for their claims. The textbook also goes on to say that we likely forget these memories because we don’t have the ability to have a sense of self, let alone the ability to hold on to long-lasting memories. ## What does psychology tell us about how memory abilities change and grow with age? In the book, chapter 7 discusses Memory: Constructing and reconstructing our past. Psychologist tells us that memory abilities can decay with age as it depends on where the memories are stored in the brain. Memory is described as the retention of information over time. Memory within a person can be good in some situations and bad in others. It is called the paradox of memory. What really affects how a person retains information is whether it is stored in the three types of memory: Sensory, short-term and long-term memory. * **Sensory Memory:** a brief perception that serves as a buffer area before passing it along to short-term memory. Sensory memory ultimately helps us understand our sensory perceptions. * **Short-term memory:** a system that retains information over a brief period. Short-term memories decay or fade away over time. This is opposed to long-term memory which is the relative endurance of the retention of information stored regarding facts, experiences, and skills. Long-term memories last from minutes to years. When talking about how memory abilities change and grow with age, we can understand by the stages of life for example in childhood due to the developing brain memory abilities develop rapidly causing them to show implicit memory (unconscious recall) but they will struggle with the conscious recollection of memory. In adolescence, memories continue to develop enhance their working memory (skills and knowledge they acquire over time) but use more mnemonic devices to help retain information. In adulthood memory, retention is at its peak as people within this stage have better working memory and long-term memory retrieval. As adults get to older ages there seems to be a decline in general knowledge, and memory retrieval. However, in most cases, they tend to keep their working knowledge. ## Describe the primacy vs. recency effect. In Chapter 7 of the book, we discuss the retention of memory regarding long-term memory activity. In the book, it mentions primacy and regency effects when it comes to memorizing things on a list. The primacy effect is a tendency to remember stimuli early in the list. While the regency effect is the tendency to remember stimuli later in the list. The difference between the two is that Primacy stimuli come with remembering the first few items on a list and being able to store that in your long-term memory when that list is taken away from you. While regency effect pertains to remembering the last few items. ## There are many types of drugs, which can cause the human brain to experience a variety of different effects. Describe the basics of depressants, stimulants, narcotics, and psychedelics. Describe each individual drugs and the main features of both, that is, how they might affect a person. 1. **Depressants** * **Definition: Drugs that slow down brain function** * **Examples: Alcohol and benzodiazepines** * **Effects: Relaxation, reduced anxiety, drowsiness. In high doses, they impair coordination and can cause respiratory issues.** * **How it works: Enhances GABA, leading to calm and reduced brain activity.** 2. **Stimulants** * **Definition: Drugs that increase alertness and energy by stimulating the CNS** * **Examples: Cocaine, caffeine, amphetamines.** * **Effects: Increased focus, energy, elevated heart rate. Overuse may cause anxiety or heart problems.** * **How it works: Increase dopamine and norepinephrine, leading to heightened alertness and pleasure.** 3. **Narcotics (Opioids)** * **Definition: pain-relieving drugs with high addiction potential.** * **Examples: Heroin, Morphine and oxycodone.** * **Effects: Euphoria, pain relief, drowsiness. High doses can cause respiratory failure.** * **How it works: Binds to opioid receptors, releasing dopamine and reducing pain.** 4. **Pshychedelics** * **Definition: Drugs that alter perception and consciousness.** * **Examples: LSD, psilocybin, MDMA.** * **Effects: Hallucinations, altered sense of reality, mood changes. Can lead to "bad trips".** * **How it works: Affects serotonin receptors, distorting perception and cognition.** ## Define all the key terms from the peripheral nervous system 1. **Somatic Nervous System** * **Function:** controls voluntary movements and transmits sensory information to the CNS. 2. **Automatic Nervous System** * **Function:** Regulates involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion. * **Sympathetic:** Activates fight or flight response * **Parasympathetic:** Promotes rest and digestion 3. **Nerves** * **Function:** Carry signals between the CNS and body, enabling sensory and motor functions. 4. **Sensory Neurons** * **Function:** Send information from the body to the CNS (e.g., pain, temperature). 5. **Motor Neurons** * **Function:** Relay signals from the CNS to muscles and glands for movement and action. 6. **Reflex arc** * **Function:** Allows for quick, automatic ## One type of learning refers to biological influences on learning, which helps explain why humans. How do biological influences help explain a) conditioned taste aversions, and why this isn’t best explained by other principles, and b) why people aren’t always afraid of things with which they’ve had the most frequent unpleasant experiences? What are the key terms that help us understand this? Biological influences on learning are discussed in chapter 6 which focuses on the types of learning. Biological influences are ways in which our genetic makeup influences learning. **Taste aversions** refers to the fact that classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to the taste of food. An example of this is Seligman’s reaction to sauce bearnaise, making him violently ill hours after consuming and from then on, he couldn’t even think of the sauce without feeling ill. This story examples of classical conditioning because it did not require repeated pairing (it developed after `1 trial`), the delay between the CS and UCS in conditioned taste aversion can be as long as `6-8 hours`, and taste aversion tends to be remarkably specific displaying little evidence of stimulus generalization. These differences can be explained by biological influences instead. From an evolutionary standpoint as we wouldn’t want to experience food poisoning again or we may have died during the first trial. The long lag in time is adaptive, because it teaches us to avoid dangerous foods we may have ingested earlier. **Preparedness** is the evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairing of feared stimulus over others owing to their survival. This explains the fear of things such as snakes and cliffs even though we do not have a bad experience with it. These things may have posed a threat to our ancestors and have been passed down. On the other hand preparedness can be a result of latent inhibition (the fact that CSs that have appeared alone without a UCS many times makes it difficult to classically condition to a stimulus). Things such as electrical sockets, stoves, and knives are encountered routinely without consequence, making these items resistant to classical condition Even though we may have gotten shocked, cut, or burned, the fear with these items are harder to develop in comparison to things we have few encounters with like cliffs. ## Describe the nature-nurture debate, as well as the free will vs. determinism debate. The debates in psychology are discussed in chapter 1. * **The nature vs nurture debate** is the discussion about how much of a person’s characteristics, behaviors, and traits are influenced by their genetic makeup (nature) compared to environmental factors (nurture). For most of the 20th century many believed all human behavior was a product of learning. But research conducted by behavior geneticists, who used sophisticated designers, proved things such as mental illness, intelligence, and personality are all influenced by genes. Although this was a very controversial debate, in modern times it is agreed upon that human behavior is attributable by our environment and genetics. * **The free will- determinism debate** poses the question to what extent are our behaviors freely selected rather than caused by factors outside our control. Most believe that we’re free to do what we want whenever we want while many others maintain that free will is an illusion and we just aren’t consciously aware of the thousands of subtle influences affecting our behavior at any given moment. Some psychologists have also argued that most or even all of our behaviors are generated automatically without conscious awareness. We may even believe something or someone else is producing behaviors we generate. For example people who engage in automatic writing seem in a trance. There is strong evidence that they are generating these behaviors themselves but unconsciously. Still other psychologists are not convinced and believe we maintain a great deal of conscious control over our behaviors. ## Describe the basics of operant learning, the main terminologies, and design three real-life examples in which you’re using all the main terms. Operant learning is described in Chapter 6 which focuses on methods of learning. It is defined in the textbook as the process by which one utilizes operant conditioning in learning a new skill or behavior. This form of learning is controlled by feedback given based on the consequences of the organism’s behavior. Behaviorists refer to the behaviors produced by the organism to receive a reward as operants, because the organism “operates” on its environment to get what it wants. Another key term related to Operant Learning is the **Law of Effect**, which states that If a response, in the presence of a stimulus is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the bond between stimulus and response will be strengthened. Additionally, in Operant learning, punishments decrease the probability of a response while rewards increase the probability of a response. Finally, the term positive refers to giving a stimulus while the term negative refers to taking away a stimulus. It is important to be able to distinguish between reinforcement and punishment, so it if helpful to remember the key terms reward, punishment, positive, and negative. The following are real life examples that will help with distinguishing these: * **Example 1: Training a Dog** * **Operant:** Teaching the dog to sit. * **Stimulus:** The command "sit." * **Positive Reinforcement:** When the dog sits, it receives a treat (reward). * **Negative Reinforcement:** If the dog does not sit, it is ignored until it complies. * **Positive Punishment:** If the dog jumps up instead of sitting, it receives a light spray of water. * **Negative Punishment:** If the dog barks excessively, playtime is taken away until it calms down. * **Example 2: Classroom Behavior** * **Operant:** Completing homework on time. * **Stimulus:** The teacher’s reminder about deadlines. * **Positive Reinforcement:** Students who submit homework on time receive praise or extra credit. * **Negative Reinforcement:** Students who are late receive a warning or extra assignments. * **Positive Punishment:** If a student disrupts the class, they might have to stay after school. * **Negative Punishment:** If students fail to follow rules, they lose recess time. * **Example 3: Workplace Performance** * **Operant:** Meeting sales targets. * **Stimulus:** Monthly sales reports. * **Positive Reinforcement:** Employees who meet their targets receive bonuses or recognition. * **Negative Reinforcement:** Employees who miss targets may receive a performance review. * **Positive Punishment:** If an employee consistently underperforms, they might be given a demotion or a reprimand. * **Negative Punishment:** If an employee is frequently late, they might lose privileges, like flexible hours. Some other key terms to know from the operant conditioning section are discriminative stimulus, acquisition, extinction, extinction burst, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, and stimulus discrimination. The chapter also highlights the observations of B.F. Skinner, a behaviorist who believed it was more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events. To test his theory, he created the Skinner box, also known as the Operant chamber, which electronically records a nonhuman animal’s responses and prints out a graph. This chamber contains a bar that delivers food when pressed often with a light that signals a reward. Another example of operant learning that the textbook gives is Thorndike’s Puzzle Box. This experiment placed hungry cats in boxes with food outside. Cat needed to solve puzzle to escape the box and it was observed that cat’s escape time decreased gradually over `60 trials` and the cats did not abruptly realize how to escape. This showed that cats learned by trial and error through steady build up of stimulus and response associations. ## Describe the pituitary gland and pituitary hormones. First mentioned in Chapter 3 along with other aspects of biological psychology, the Pituitary gland is defined as the “`Master gland`”, but is influenced by other glands and by the hypothalamus. It earns its name as the master gland because, under the control of the hypothalamus, it directs the other glands of the body. The pituitary gland releases hormones that influence growth, blood pressure, and other diverse functions such as anxiety (in high levels) and sexual motivation. One key hormone that the textbook talks about that is produced in the hypothalamus and stored and released by the pituitary gland is Oxytocin. Oxytocin is often oversimplified and referred to as the “`cuddle hormone`” or “`love molecule`” and is involved in reproductive functions (uterine contractions/lactation), trust, and social bonding (affiliative behavior). Additionally, Oxytocin facilitates sensitivity to both positive and negative social cues. ## Reliability and Validity of IQ scores? The reliability and validity of IQ scores are described within Chapter 8.4 - Intelligence Testing. First, we must define what it means for something to be valid or reliable. Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement. Validity refers to the extent to which a measure assesses what it purports to measure. Now, how do these terms intertwine with IQ scores? To start, the textbook states that IQ scores are not fixed; they occasionally shift for the same person over time. However, this doesn’t directly mean that they are not reliable. The textbook indicates that IQ scores are relatively consistent within adulthood, showing high test-retest reliability, (a high consistency of measurement over time) However there is also an exception to the reliability of IQ scores to individuals before the ages of `2-3`. IQ scores for individuals within this age group did not show consistency of measurement over time. Such tests included sensory abilities that Galton emphasized. IQ tests for older children tested for more abstract reasoning. Now for the Validity of IQ scores, it is mentioned by the text that a test must relate to outcomes that are measured at the same time the test is administered (concurrent validity). Likewise, the test’s ability to forecast future outcomes (predictive validity). It is said that IQ scores do a good job of predicting academic success. It is also said that IQ scores predict performance quite well across various occupations. The main takeaway: Overall, IQ seems to be both fairly consistent and related to other outcomes that rely on intelligence, suggesting that IQ measures are both reliable and valid. As an illustrative example, a person could take IQ tests multiple times and receive the same score each time showing reliability. Their IQ scores also accurately predicted their performance in other occupations as well, showing high validity. ## Describe differences between basic and applied research. Basic and Applied Research are described within Chapter 1.4 - Psychology’s Past and Present. Basic research is described as research that examines how the mind works. Applied Research is described as how we use basic research to solve real-world problems. To help remember this, we can dissect the literal meaning of each term. Basic research, as indicated by the term “basic” could be investigators studying the laws of learning. (Studying how the mind works) Applied Research, remember the term “Applied” takes basic research and uses it to solve real-world problems, such as investigators who study how to help people cope with the psychological burden of cancer. ## Depth perception is the ability to see spatial relations in three dimensions. What are the two kinds of cues we use, and what are the important terms for each (that is, what are we able to see with each cue?) Depth perception is explained in Chapter 4 which focuses on sensation and perception. This is important to perception because it is a type of visual perception that we use in everyday life, and psychologists must explain the different factors that go into how our brains perceive depth. The textbook definition of depth perception is the ability to judge distance and three-dimensional relations among objects. It allows us to know how close or far away we are from objects, and an example of depth perception in action that the textbook gives is of a person reaching for a glass of water and grasping it instead of knocking it over and spilling it. We use two different types of cues to gauge depth. The first are **monocular depth cues** which only rely on one eye. The second are **binocular depth cues** which rely on both eyes. The textbook defines the cues as stimuli that enable us to judge depth using one eye or both eyes, respectively. * **Monocular cues** rely on pictorial cues such as relative size (distant objects look smaller than those closer), texture gradient (distant objects seem to have less texture than those closer), interposition (closer objects block view of objects behind it), linear perspective (outlines of buildings converge as distance increases), height in plane (distant objects appear higher than those closer), and light and shadow (shadows give sense of object’s form). It also relies on non pictorial cues such as motion parallax which is our ability to judge the distance of moving objects from their speed. Objects nearer to us seem to move quicker than objects farther away. * **Binocular cues** rely on information from both eyes to perceive depth. Binocular disparity and binocular convergence are two important terms relating to binocular cues. Binocular disparity is our brain’s ability to use different information from the eyes to determine depth and position of objects. Binocular convergence is our ability to judge distance based on how much our eyes turn inward, or converge, when looking at nearer objects. ## Describe the first two components of Correlations: A Beginners Guide. Correlation is described in Chapter 2 which goes over research methods and safeguards against errors. Correlation is initially introduced with two main components which are correlation coefficients and correlation being either negative, zero, or positive. Firstly, **correlation** can be negative, zero, or positive. A positive correlation means that for two variables, both values move in the same direction. As one goes up then the other also goes up, or if one goes down then the other also goes down. A correlation of zero means the two variables have nothing to do with each other at all. One value going up does not affect the other value in any way. A negative correlation means that the variables are inversely related. So as one variable changes, the other goes in the opposite direction. That is, if one goes up then the other goes down and vice versa. Secondly, **correlation coefficients** tell us how strongly variables are related. These coefficients can range from -1.0 to 1.0. A coefficient of exactly -1.0 is a perfect negative correlation and 1.0 is a perfect positive correlation. These would show that for every one increase or decrease in a value, the other value would increase or decrease also one. Values lower than 1.0 are less than perfect coefficients and are more often the ones we see. To determine how strong a coefficient is, we take the absolute value of it. The closer the number is to 1.0 then the stronger the coefficient is. A coefficient of -0.87 is stronger than one of -0.32 because the absolute values are 0.87 and 0.32, and 0.87 is closer to 1.0. ## What are the three ways psychologists have studied genetic influences on intelligence? The three ways psychologists studied genetic have studied genetic influences on intelligence are discussed in Chapter 8 Thinking, Language and Intelligence: Getting Inside Our Talking Heads. It is important in Chapter 8 because it provides a deeper understanding of the factors contributing to individual differences in cognitive abilities. * **Twin Studies:** Researchers compare the similarities in intelligence between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins. Identical twins share 100% of their genes, while fraternal twins share about 50%. The IQ correlation between identical twins is about 0.7 to 0.8. However, the IQ correlation between fraternal twins is about 0.3 to 0.4. A higher similarity in intelligence scores between identical twins suggests a strong genetic influence. * **Adoption Studies:** These studies look at adopted children and compare their intelligence to that of their biological and adoptive parents. This type of study is influenced by selective placement( children are in homes similar to those of bio parents). However, we found that children who come from deprived environments show increased IQs when provided with an enriched environment. Besides, young children resemble biological parents only at an early age, as they get older, these IQ resemblances dissipate. * **Family Studies:** These involve comparing intelligence across different family members, such as siblings, parents, and children, to assess how much genetic relatedness correlates with similarities in intelligence. Closer genetic relationships (e.g., between siblings or parent-child pairs) often show higher correlations(0.5) in intelligence scores. Conversely, the correlation for IQ between cousins is only 0.15. ## Describe what neurotransmission is, including receptor sites and reuptake. Neurotransmission is the topic we discussed in Chapter 3 bridging the levels of analysis. Neurotransmission is important because this is the concept of how neurons communicate, which is a crucial takeaway from the chapter. This communication occurs through the release and reception of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. * **Stage 1: Release of Neurotransmitters:** When an electrical signal (action potential) travels down the axon of a neuron, it reaches the synapse—a small gap between the sending neuron (presynaptic neuron) and the receiving cell (postsynaptic neuron). This electrical signal triggers the release of neurotransmitters stored in vesicles at the axon terminal. * **Stage 2: Binding to Receptor Sites:** The neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to specific receptor sites on the membrane of the receiving neuron (or muscle cell or gland). These receptor sites are specialized proteins that recognize and respond to specific neurotransmitters, like a lock and key. When neurotransmitters bind to these receptors, they trigger a response in the receiving neuron, such as generating a new electrical signal or inhibiting it. * **Stage 3: Reuptake:** After the neurotransmitters have sent their message, they are either broken down by enzymes in the synaptic cleft or reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron in a process called reuptake. This recycling process clears the neurotransmitter from the synapse and allows the neuron to prepare for the next signal. Like a straw releasing and pulling liquid. Reuptake is one of the most critical components of the process of neurotransmission, which determines the duration and strength of the inter-neuron signal. In addition, this mechanism of neurotransmitter transport has clinical significance regarding some drugs, for example, SSRIs for depression, which block the reuptake of some neurotransmitters and cause their excess in the synapse. Neurotransmission is critical to the processes of the brain, mediating aspects such as mood and memory, movement and cognition. Different types of neurotransmitters (for Ex: dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine) depending on their respective receptor sites on the cells and the pathways might have distinct actions. ## Describe the stages of sleep and the important features of each stage? The stages of sleep are described in Chapter 5 of our textbook regarding consciousness. There are 5 stages of sleep. The first stage is very light sleep and there are theta waves active in the brain. This stage lasts about 5-10 minutes. The brain powers down to about 50% percent and there are myoclonic jerks as well as hypnagogic imagery. The second stage of sleep lasts about 10-30 minutes and this is where your heart rate slows down and your muscles relax. Humans usually spend about 65% of their sleep in Stage 2. Stages 3 and 4 can be grouped together as they are similar. These stages are deep, slow-wave sleep that is vital for feeling rested. The last stage of the sleep cycle is stage 5 which is REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. In this stage, we have vivid dreams with high frequency, and low amplitude waves, and the body is essentially paralyzed. We go through this whole cycle around 5-6 times every night. ## What terms might one need to know if they are evaluating psychology in the media? An important term to know when evaluating psychology in the media is **pseudo-science** which just means fake science. There are different ways to spot pseudo-science. One way is through the **ad hoc immunizing hypotheses** which are escape routes to protect against falsification such as a loophole. Another is **over-reliance on anecdotes**. Anecdotes can’t make cause-and-effect claims and are difficult to verify. It is important that when evaluating Psychology in the media you look for credible sources and actual proof of data otherwise you may fall into believing pseudo-science. ## What are all the warning signs of pseudoscience, what do they mean? The topic of pseudoscience occurs in Ch1 of the textbook, pseudoscience is defined as a set of claims that seem scientific but isn’t. There are 8 warning signs that something might be pseudoscientific. 1. **Overuse of the ad hoc immunizing hypothesis.** The ad hoc immunizing fallacy is when defenders of a theory/idea find a loophole to protect their idea from falsification, it basically makes it impossible to test the claim. Textbook example: a psychic who claims to be able to predict the future but failed all of the controlled scientific tests, and claim they failed because the experimenters inhibited their extrasensory powers. 2. **Exaggerated claims.** Basically that the defenders or people proposing a certain idea are claiming things that are unheard of or seem impossible. Textbook example: "Three simple steps will change your love life forever!". Use of the words “forever” and “three simple steps" for something as complex as a relationship sounds unrealistic. 3. **Over reliance on anecdotes.** Anecdotes are basically people's claims and words, it is hard to test anecdotal claims. Textbook example: a woman practicing yoga daily for three weeks and hasn't been depressed since. This evidence or idea is completely based on the woman's claim, that she hasn't felt depressed, and this might only apply to her, not to a whole population. 4. **Absence of connectivity to other research.** Basically, the scientific claims being presented do not relate to any other research that also studies the same or similar questions, which is bad because normally research builds and expands on prior research. Textbook example: Amazing new innovations in research have shown that eye massage results in reading speeds 10 times faster than average! 5. **Lack of peer review or replication by independent labs.** Generally scientific research has to be replicated to ensure its results are reliable, and normally other independent researchers replicate these experiments. Textbook example: 50 studies conducted by the company all show overwhelming success! It is good the company replicated its experiments but in order to ensure they are reliable another company would also have to replicate the experiment. 6. **Lack of self-correction as new or contrary evidence is published.** Basically, as new evidence and ideas are found for a particular scientific question, researchers should adjust and revisit their prior findings to ensure they are accurate. Textbook example: Although most scientists say we use almost all our brains, we’ve found a way to harness additional brain power previously undiscovered. In this example the people are claiming something that goes against other evidence. 7. **Psychobabble.** It is when researchers use fancy scientific-sounding terms that do not really make any sense to make their claim sound realistic/true. Textbook example: Sine-wave filtered auditory stimulation is carefully designed to encourage maximal orbitofrontal dendritic development. 8. **Talk of “proof” instead of “evidence”.** Keyword to look for is ‘proof’, this indicates something is pseudoscientific. It is very hard to prove something is true, it requires tons of evidence, replication, testing, peer review, and a general consensus amongst the scientific community. Textbook example: Our new program is proven to reduce social anxiety by at least 50%! ## Describe noise induced hearing loss, what is primarily damaged in the ear when someone has damaged hearing? The textbook talks about noise induced hearing loss in Ch4 of the textbook. Noise induced hearing loss occurs when the hair cells are damaged, the hair cells are located in the Organ of Corti in the cochlea (which are parts of the inner ear). Hair cells transduce auditory information in action potentials, they are why we hear sound, they are very delicate and loud sounds can damage them. Exposure to loud sounds for a long time or that are repeated not only damage the hair cells but can also cause tinnitus. Which is a ringing, roaring, hissing, or buzzing sound