Introduction to Psychology PDF Module

A SELF LEARNING MODULE 1 2 How to Use the Module Hello student! This is your self - learning module on Introduction to Psychology. I want you to take this seriously since this module consists of different topics which are deemed essential as you progress in your course i...

A SELF LEARNING MODULE 1 2 How to Use the Module Hello student! This is your self - learning module on Introduction to Psychology. I want you to take this seriously since this module consists of different topics which are deemed essential as you progress in your course in BS Psychology. Please take note of the following steps for you to have the best learning experience: 1. Answer the pre - test before exploring the whole contents of the module. 2. Begin the module by reading the introduction and internalizing the objectives so that you will know what to expect. 3. Read the instructions carefully when you answer the activities. Do not move on to the next activity if you have not fully answered the task on hand. If you have clarifications regarding the lesson or the instructions, do not hesitate to contact your instructor. 4. All outputs should be placed on a separate sheet (either short sized bondpaper or yellow paper) depending on your resources. If you plan to have it handwritten, please do write legibly. You may also opt to have it printed. 5. All learning activities are graded and should be submitted to the instructor’s designated dates via Google Classroom or you may personally hand in your answer sheets enclosed in a long brown envelope at the school campus if you do not have internet connection at home. 6. Your outputs must be done with honesty and uprightness. 3 Class Schedule Week 1 April 26 – 30, 2021 Pretest / Lesson 1 Week 2 May 3 – 7, 2021 Lesson 2 / Lesson 3 Week 3 May 10 – 14, 2021 Lesson 4 / Lesson 5 Week 4 May 17 – 21, 2021 Midterm Examination / Lesson 6 Week 5 May 24 – 28, 2021 Lesson 7 Week 6 May 31 – June 4, 2021 Lesson 8 / Final Examination / Post Test Guidelines in Groupings For your dyad Look for a partner you are comfortable to work with. He/she will be your pair until the end of the semester. For your group Form a group with 6 members each. You will be groupmates for the activities which require groupings until the end of the semester. Group 1 – Fechner Group 2 – Wundt Group 3 – James Group 4 – Watson Group 5 – Skinner Group 6 – Wertheimer Group 7 – Freud 4 Guidelines in Uploading Outputs on Google Classroom 1. Use doc., docx., or pdf file types only 2. Do not forget to include the names of your pair or group on the document 3. Upload your output with this format: Individual Last Name_Lesson2_Explore Example Cooper_Lesson2_Explore Dyad Last Name &Last Name_Lesson1_Engage Example Avery&Wilson_Lesson1_Engage Group Group Name_Lesson1_Elaborate *group leaders are tasked to upload group outputs 5 Cover Page ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 1 How to Use the Module ……………………………………………………………………………………………..…… 3 Class Schedule ….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..… 4 Guidelines in Groupings ………………………………………………………………………………………………..… 4 Guidelines in Uploading to Google Classroom …………………………………………………………………. 5 Pre – Test ……………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………….. 7 Lesson 1: The Nature of Psychology and the Neurobiological Basis of Behavior ……………… 12 Lesson 2: Human Development ………………………………………………………………………………………. 29 Lesson 3: Emotion and Perception ………………………………………………………………………………….. 42 Lesson 4: Consciousness and its Altered States ……………………………………………………………….. 50 Lesson 5: Thinking, Learning and Memory …………………………………………..………………………….. 56 Lesson 6: Personality ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 65 Lesson 7: Health, Stress, and Coping ……………………………………………………………………………….. 75 Lesson 8: Abnormal and Social Psychology ……………………………………………………………………… 82 Post Test …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 95 References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 100 6 Pre Test Directions: Choose the best answer. 1. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of a. Behavior and mental processes b. Diagnosis and treatment of behavioral disorders c. Conscious and unconscious mental processes d. The mind 2. What distinguished Wilhelm Wundt’s contribution from other contributions to psychology? a. He wrote the first textbook of psychology b. He defined psychology as the science of behavior c. He established psychology as a laboratory science d. He studied insight in lower animals 3. __________ psychologists make technical systems such as automobile dashboards and computer keyboards more user friendly. a. Experimental b. Consumer c. Human factors d. Industrial 4. Jean, a divorced mother with two children, married Harry, a widower with a teenage daughter. From the onset of her relationship with Harry, Jean had difficulty in relating to his daughter. Once married, the family problems between stepmother and stepdaughter became exacerbated. Who would be the most appropriate to consult? a. A Developmental Psychologist b. An Educational Psychologist c. A Counseling Psychologist d. An Organizational Psychologist 5. The issues of ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status are the concerns of the _____________ perspective. a. Sociocultural b. Humanistic – Existential c. Psychoanalytic d. Social – Cognitive 7 6. The axons of the ____________ make up the optic nerve, which exits the eye at the ____________. a. Bipolar cells; fovea b. Ganglion cells; blind spot c. Bipolar cells; blind spot d. Horizontal cells, fovea 7. A neuron can fire up to a limit of about ___________ times per second. a. 40 b. 400 c. 4,000 d. 40,000 8. Ellen loses weight and becomes somewhat agitated. Her doctor is most likely to theorize that she is suffering from a deficiency of a. Epinephrine b. Dopamine c. Cortisol d. Thyroxin 9. Which neurotransmitter is associated with depression? a. Serotonin b. Dopamine c. Glutamate d. GABA 10. Which of the following are children most likely to “outgrow”? a. Insomnia b. Bed – wetting c. Sleep apnea d. Narcolepsy 11. Elyse is a college student who has developed a tolerance to heroin and experiences withdrawal symptoms whenever she doesn’t have a “fix” at least every eight hours. She feels that she has lost control and has to organize her life around her habit. She would be classified as having a. Substance abuse b. Substance dependence c. Substance use d. Anxiety disorder 8 12. Roberto kept seeing signs on the highway advertising Pizza Corner. He started to salivate at the possibility of having a pizza. The signs were a. Unconditioned stimuli b. Unconditioned responses c. Conditioned stimuli d. Conditioned responses 13. Which of the following best illustrates operant conditioning according to Skinner? a. A dog salivates at the sound of a dinner bell b. A cat comes running when it hears the sound of a can opener c. A dolphin is given a fish every time it jumps through a hoop d. The mating behavior of salmon 14. Johnny watches TV violence for an hour or two a day, but he is not violent outside the home. Then one day, Billy attacks him on the way home from school, and Johnny imitates the behavior he saw on TV to fight Billy off and teach Billy never to attack him again. Although Johnny had not shown violent behavior until he was attacked, we can assume that when he was watching TV, he was engaging in a. Latent learning b. Shaping c. Discriminating training d. Operant conditioning 15. Jamie’s mother was concerned that her 4 year old daughter overregularized plurals and tenses. She took Jamie to Dr. Acton, a noted learning theorist. Who advised her to a. Wait for Jamie’s speech to correct itself b. Take her to a speech therapist c. Correct her grammar through imitation and repetition d. Begin instruction in another language 16. Fear involves activation of the ____________ nervous system, but depression involves activation of the ______________ nervous system. a. Peripheral; somatic b. Somatic; peripheral c. Parasympathetic; sympathetic d. Sympathetic; parasympathetic 17. Erikson labeled the life crisis of the middle years as a. Trust vs mistrust b. Generativity vs stagnation 9  c. Identity vs stagnation d. Midlife transition vs despair 18. The five – factor model includes which five basic personality factors? a. Depression, obsessiveness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness b. Narcissism, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness c. Extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness d. Extraversion, psychosis, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness 19. Moderators of stress include all of the following except a. Pretending that stressors do not exist b. Psychological hardiness c. Sense of humor d. Predictability and control 20. Candace has an internal locus of control. This means that she a. Can only control her inner emotions b. Can only control her outward appearance c. Feels she is controlled by others d. Feels she can control her own life 21. Boris has been under a great deal of stress. Which of the following is most likely true? a. His immune system is weakened b. His immune system is strengthened c. His immune system is unaffected d. None of the above 22. The news just reported that a hurricane is headed toward your home. You feel anxious and can’t decide what to do first to prepare. This response is indicative of a. Unusual behavior b. Normal behavior c. Abnormal behavior d. Faulty behavior 23. Imagery in the absence of external stimulation is the definition of _____________, which are often observed in people with schizophrenia. a. Rapid flight of ideas b. Delusions c. Hallucinations d. Stress disorder 10 24. The self – serving bias is the tendency to a. Repeat ourselves when we think we’re right b. Take care of our own needs first, and worry about others later c. Credit our successes to internal, dispositional factors, and our failures to situational influences d. Describe our successes in greater detail than our failures 25. One major reason that group tend to take greater risks than their members would take as individual is a. Diffusion of responsibility b. The reciprocity norm c. Group intelligence d. All of these 11 LESSON 1: THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND THE NEUROBIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR Introduction Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation. Psychology is a popular major for students, a popular topic in the public media, and a part of our everyday lives. This lesson provides an introduction to the broad field of psychology and the many approaches that psychologists take to understanding human behavior. Also, this covers a range of concepts, including understanding the development of two parts of the nervous system: peripheral and central nervous systems. The lion’s share of the focus is on the latter as there are many terms and concepts related to the various divisions and structures of the central nervous system, including the brain Lesson Objectives In this lesson, students will be able to 1. Explain why using our intuition or common sense about everyday behavior is insufficient for a complete understanding of the causes of behavior. 2. Describe the difference between values and facts and explain how the scientific method is used to differentiate between the two. 3. Discover the variety of fields in which psychologists work and the careers that are available to people with psychology degrees. 4. Describe the nervous system, including neurons, neural impulses, and neurotransmitters. 5. List the structures of the brain and their functions. 6. Describe evolutionary psychology and the connections between heredity, behavior, and mental processes. Engage – Learning Task Directions: Folklore, common sense, or nonsense? Discuss within your group and identify whether the following statements are truth or fiction. Check your answers as we go through with our lesson. 1. More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a book on psychology with contents similar to the module you are now reading. 2. The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates suggested a research method that is still used in psychology. 3. Men receive the majority of doctoral degrees in psychology. 12  4. Even though she had worked to complete all the degree requirements, the first female president of the American Psychological Association turned down the doctoral degree that was offered to her. 5. You could survey millions of voters and still not accurately predict the outcome of a presidential election. 6. In many experiments, neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the real treatment and who is not. Explore – Learning Task Directions: Read the story of Phineas Gage by clicking the link below. https://www.uakron.edu/gage/story.dot Meet with your group virtually and discuss the following guide questions: 1. Was Phineas Gage lucky or unlucky? Why or why not? 2. What is most likely the reason that Gage’s personality changed after the accident? Upload a screenshot of your discussion on Google Classroom. Explain Before you begin reading this section, click on the link and watch this informative video to give you a glimpse of the nature of psychology. Intro to Psychology: Crash Course Psychology #1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vo4pMVb0R6M Psychology as a Science Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Like other sciences, psychology seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control the events it studies. The goal of controlling behavior and mental processes does not mean that psychologists seek ways to make people do their bidding, like puppets on strings. Rather, psychologists seek to understand the factors that influence behavior and apply this knowledge for the public good. Psychology attempts to understand the role human behavior plays in social dynamics while incorporating physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of mental functioning. Why do you think these people are behaving the way they are? 13 What Psychologists Do Fields of Psychology Psychology is a broad field of study. Hence, psychologists are found in a number of specialties. Clinical Psychology Clinical Psychologists evaluate psychological disorders through the use of behavioral interviews and psychological tests. Counseling Psychology Counseling Psychologists like clinical psychologists, use interviews and tests to define their clients’ problems. Their clients typically have adjustment problems but not serious psychological disorders. School Psychology School Psychologists are employed by school systems to identify and assist students who have problems that interfere with learning. They help schools make decisions about the placement of students in special classes. Educational Psychology Educational Psychologists like school psychologists, attempt to facilitate learning but usually focus on course planning and 14  instructional methods for a school systems rather than on individual children. Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychologists study the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur throughout the lifespan. They attempt to sort out the influences of heredity and the environment on development. Personality Psychology Personality Psychologists identify and measure human traits and determine influences on human thought processes, feelings, and behavior. Social Psychology Social Psychologists are concerned with the nature and causes of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations. Environmental Psychology Environmental Psychologists study the ways that people and the environment, both natural and manmade, influence one another. Experimental Psychology Experimental Psychologists specialize in basic processes such as the nervous system, sensation, and perception, learning and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion. Industrial Psychology Industrial Psychologists focus on the relationships between people and work. Organizational Psychology Organizational Psychologists study the behavior of people in the organizations such as businesses. Human Factors Psychology Human Factors Psychologists make technical systems such as automobile dashboards and computer keyboards more user friendly. 15 Consumer Psychology Consumer Psychologists study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behavior. They advise store managers on how to layout the aisles of a supermarket in ways that boost impulse buying, how to arrange window displays to attract customers, and how to make newspaper ads and TV commercials more persuasive. Health Psychology Health Psychologists study the effects of stress on health problems such as headaches, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. They also guide clients toward healthier behavior patterns, such as exercising and quitting smoking. Forensic Psychology Forensic Psychologists apply psychology to the criminal justice system. They deal with legal matters such as whether a defendant was sane when he or she committed a crime. They may also treat psychologically ill offenders, consult with attorneys on matters such as picking a jury, and analyze offenders’ behavior and mental processes. They may conduct research on matters ranging from evaluation of eyewitness testimony to methods of interrogation. Sports Psychology Sport Psychologists help athletes concentrate on their performance with the use of cognitive strategies like positive visualization. 16 History of Psychology Aristotle (384 – 32 B.C.E.) Aristotle argued that human behavior, like the movements of the stars and the seas, is subject to rules and laws. He delved into his subject matter topic by topic: personality, sensation and perception, thought, intelligence, needs and motives, feelings and emotion, and memory. Democritus (400 B.C.E.) Around 400 BCE, Democritus suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and a mind. He emphasized that our behavior is influenced by external simulation. He was one of the first to raise the question of whether there is free will or choice. “Where do the influences of others end and our “real selves” begin?” Socrates Socrates suggested that we should rely on rational thought and introspection or the careful examination of one’s own thoughts and emotions to gain self – knowledge. He also pointed out that people are social creatures who influence one another. Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801 – 1887) Fechner published his landmark book, the Elements of Psychophysics, which showed how physical events are related to psychological sensation and perception. He also showed how we can scientifically measure the effect of these events. Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt, the German psychologist, and his students, founded the school of psychology called structuralism. Structuralism attempted to break conscious experience down into objective sensations, such as sight or taste, and subjective feelings, such as emotional responses, and mental images such as memories or dreams. “What are the pieces that make up thinking and experience?” Functionalism William James, the founder of the school of functionalism, became a major figure in the development of psychology in the United States. Functionalists focuses on behavior as well 17 as the mind or consciousness. They look at how our experience helps us function more adaptively in our environments. “How do behavior and mental processes help people adapt to the requirements of their lives?” Behaviorism Behaviorism is the school of psychology that focuses on learning observable behavior. The term observable refers to behaviors that are observable by means of specialized instruments, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and brain waves. John Broadus Watson is the founder of American can behaviorism. Watson was asked to consider the contents of a rat’s “mind” as one of the requirements for his doctoral degree, which he received from University of Chicago in 1903. He assumed that if psychology was to be a natural science like physics or chemistry, it must limit itself to observable, measurable events. B.F. Skinner on the other hand, believe that organisms learn to behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced for doing so. Hence, their behavior has a positive outcome. Gestalt Psychology Gestalt psychology became prominent in Germany in the 1920s. in the 1930s, the three founders of the school, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler left Europe to escape the Nazi threat and carried on their work in the United States. Gestalt psychologists focused on perception and how perception influences thinking and problem solving. The German word Gestalt translates roughly to “patter” or “organized whole.” They showed that we tend to perceive separate pieces of information as integrated wholes depending on the contexts in which they occur. They demonstrated that much learning, especially in problem solving, is accomplished by insight, not by mechanical repetition. Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is the name of both the theory of personality and the method of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud. As a theory of personality, psychoanalysis proposes that much of our lives is governed by unconscious ideas and impulses that originate in childhood conflicts. 18 How Today’s Psychologists View Behavior and Mental Processes Today, we no longer find psychologists who describe themselves as structuralists or functionalists. Many contemporary psychologists in the behaviorist tradition look on themselves as social – cognitive theorists. The history of psychological thought has taken many turns, and contemporary psychologists differ in their approaches. The Biological Perspective Psychologists with a biological perspective seek the links between the activity of the brain, the activity of hormones, and heredity, on the one hand, and behavior and mental processes on the other. The Cognitive Perspective Psychologists with a cognitive perspective venture into the realm of mental processes to understand human nature. They investigate the ways in which we perceive and mentally represent the world, how we learn, remember the past, plan for the future, solve problems, form judgments, make decisions, and use language. Cognitive psychologists, in short, study those things we refer to as the mind. The Humanistic – Existential Perspective Humanism stresses the human capacity for self – fulfillment and the central roles of consciousness, self-awareness, and decision making. Humanists believe that self-awareness, experience, and choice permit us, to a large extent, to "invent ourselves" as we progress through life. Consciousness, our sense of being in the world, is seen as the force that unifies our personalities. Existentialism views people as free to choose and as being responsible for choosing ethical conduct. The Psychodynamic Perspective In the 1940s and 1950s, psychodynamic theory dominated the field of psychotherapy and influenced scientific psychology and the arts. Renowned artists and writers consulted psychodynamic therapists to liberate the expression of their unconscious ideas. Today, Freud's influence is still felt, although it no longer dominates psychotherapy. Contemporary psychologists who follow theories derived from Freud are likely to call themselves neoanalysts. 19 Perspectives on Learning Many contemporary psychologists study the effects of experience on behavior. Learning, to them, is the essential factor in describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behavior. The term learning has different meanings to psychologists of different persuasions, however. Some students of learning find roles for consciousness and insight while others do not. This distinction is found today among those who adhere to the behavioral and social cognitive perspectives. The Sociocultural Perspective The sociocultural perspective addresses many of the ways in which people differ from one another. It studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes. Studying cultures other than their own helps psychologists understand the roles of culture in behavior, beliefs, values, and attitudes. BIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY The Nervous System: On Being Wired The nervous system is a system of nerves involved in thought processes, heartbeat, visual – motor coordination, and so on. It contains the brain, the spinal cord, and other parts that make it possible for us to receive information from the world outside and to act on that world. 20 Neurons: Into the Fabulous Forest Within our brain lies a fabulous forest of nerve cells called neurons. These are specialized cells of the nervous system that conduct impulses. Neurons can be visualized as having branches, trunks, and roots. They lie alongside one another but they can also lie end to end, with their roots intertwined with the branches of the neurons that lie below. They receive messages from a number of sources such as light, other neurons, and pressure on the skin, and they can pass these messages along in a complex biological dance. Glial Cells Glial cells remove dead neurons and waste products from the nervous stem, nourish and insulate neurons, form a fatty, insulating substance called mylen, and play a role in the neural transmission of messages. Dendrites Dendrites are rootlike structures, attached to the cell body of a neuron, that receive impulses, or incoming messages, from other neurons. Axons An axon is a long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from bulb – shaped structures called axon terminals or terminal buttons. Myelin A myelin is a fatty substance that encases and insulates axons, facilitating transmission of neural impulses. Afferent Neurons Afferent neurons are neurons that transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain. Efferent Neurons Efferent neurons are neurons that transmit messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands. The Neural Impulse: “The Body Electric” Neural impulses are messages that travel within neurons at somewhere between two (in nonmyelinated neurons) and 225 miles an hour (in myelinated neurons). 21 An Electrochemical Voyage The process by which neural impulses travel is electrochemical. Chemical changes take place within neurons that cause an electrical charge to be transmitted along their lengths. Action Potential Action potential refers to the electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron. The inside of the cell axon at the disturbed area has an action potential of 110 millivolts. This action potential, added to the – 70 millivolts that characterizes the resting potential, brings the membrane voltage to a positive charge of about +30 to +40 millivolts. Resting Potential Resting potential refers to the electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is not responding to other neurons. This potential is about – 70 millivolts in relation to the body fluid outside the cell membrane. The Synapse: On Being Well – Connected A neuron relays its message to another neuron across a junction called a synapse. A synapse consists of an axon terminal from the transmitting neuron, a dendrite, or the body of a receiving neuron, and a fluid – filled gap between the two that is called the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters: The Chemical Keys to Communication Sacs called synaptic vesicles in the axon terminals contain neurotransmitters, the chemical keys to communication. When a neural impulse (action potential) reaches the axon terminal, the vesicles release varying amounts of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. From there, they influence the receiving neuron. Neurotransmitters are involved in the physical processes such as muscle contraction and psychological processes such as thoughts and emotions. Acetylcholine (ACh) The Acetylcholine controls muscle contractions. It is excitatory at synapses between nerves and muscles that involve voluntary movement but inhibitory at the heart and some other locations. ACh is also normally prevalent in a part of the brain called the hippocampus, a structure involved in the formation of memories. When the amount of ACh available to the brain decreases, as in Alzheimer's disease, memory formation is impaired. Dopamine Dopamine acts in the brain and affects ability to perceive pleasure, voluntary movement, and learning and memory. Deficiencies of dopamine are linked to Parkinson's disease, in which 22 people progressively lose control over their muscles. The psychological disorder schizophrenia is characterized by confusion and false perceptions, and it has been linked to dopamine. People with schizophrenia may have more receptor sites for dopamine in an area of the brain that is involved in emotional responding. For this reason, they may "overutilize" the dopamine available in the brain. Overutilization is connected with hallucinations and disturbances of thought and emotion. Norepinephrine Norepinephrine is produced largely by neurons in the brain stem and acts both as neurotransmitter and as a hormone. It is an excitatory neurotransmitter that speeds up the heartbeat and other body processes and is involved in general arousal, learning and memory, and eating. Excesses and deficiencies of norepinephrine have been linked to mood disorders. Deficiencies of both ACh and norepinephrine particularly impair memory formulation. Serotonin Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that is involved in emotional arousal and sleep. Deficiencies of serotonin have been linked to eating disorders, alcoholism, depression, aggression, and insomnia. The drug LSD decreases the action of serotonin is also believed to increase the utilization of dopamine, which may be the mechanism by which it produces hallucinations. Gamma – Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) Gamma-aminobutyric acid is another neurotransmitter of great interest to psychologists. One reason is that it is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that may help calm anxiety reactions. Tranquilizers and alcohol may quell anxiety by binding with GABA receptors and amplifying its effects. One class of antianxiety drug may also increase the sensitivity of receptor sites to GABA. Other studies link deficiencies of GABA to depression. Endorphins Endorphins are inhibitory neurotransmitters. Endorphins occur naturally in the brain and in the bloodstream and are similar to the narcotic morphine in their functions and effects. Endorphins may also increase our sense of competence, enhance the functioning of the immune system, and be connected with the pleasurable "runner's high." The Nervous System The mammalian nervous system is a complex biological organ, which enables many animals including humans to function in a coordinated fashion. The original design of this system is preserved across many animals through evolution; thus, adaptive physiological and behavioral functions are similar across many animal species. 23 The Development of the Nervous System The nervous tissue that forms the brain develops over the course of gestation: As the embryo continues to develop, so does the neural tube. It balloons up rostral (towards the head). At day 40, we can see clear distinctions of the forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain and the spinal cord. By 50 and 100 days the cerebral hemispheres are developing, and thereafter they cover the majority of the brain area. Central Nervous System (CNS) The CNS is divided into forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain, and each division performs a variety of tasks. For example, the cerebral cortex in the forebrain houses sensory, motor, and associative areas that gather sensory information, process information for perception and memory, and produce responses based on incoming and inherent information. Brain The brain is responsible for all behaviors, thoughts, and experiences. Forebrain The forebrain is the forward – portion of the brain. It consists of the telencephalon and diencephalon. Midbrain The midbrain is the smallest region of the central nervous system and acts as a relay station for visual and auditory information. It is also referred to as the mesencephalon. Hindbrain The hindbrain is the rear lower portion of the brain. It is comprised of the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Limbic System The limbic system is a collective name for structures involved in emotion, motivation, and emotional associations with memory. It primarily refers to these structures: amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia and cingulate gyrus. Amygdala Amygdala is an almond-shaped set of neurons that is part of the limbic system and located in the temporal lobe. It is involved in processing and expression of arousal and emotions like anger and fear. 24 Basal Ganglia Basal Ganglia is a group of nuclei lying deep in the frontal lobes and is part of the limbic system. It is involved in voluntary movement and coordination. Cingulate Gyrus Cingulate Gyrus is a component of the limbic system that lies just above the corpus callosum. It is responsible for directing attention to emotionally significant events for associating memories to smells and pain. Cerebral Hemispheres The cerebral cortex is divided into left and right hemisphere and connected by a dense bundle of white matter tracts known as the corpus callosum. There are some functions that are lateralized, or primarily under the control of one hemisphere. Both hemispheres, on the other hand, control motor and sensory functions, although the sensory and motor cortices have a contralateral representation. Split-brain patients are people whose two cerebral hemispheres are not connected via the corpus callosum as a result of surgery or genetic abnormality. Studying these patients helps us understand the function of the two hemispheres. Four Lobes Parietal Lobe This is an area of the cerebrum at the top of the head, but towards the back, and is involved with somatosensory and gustatory sensation. It includes the somatosensory strip, which is like a map of the entire body and receives input from the skin and muscles. It also contains the gustation strip, or the second somatosensory cortex, which is involved with our experiences of taste. Temporal Lobe This area contains the primary auditory and olfactory cortexes, brain regions devoted to hearing and smell. This is proximally located to these areas is Wernicke’s area, which is responsible for language comprehension and is connected to Broca’s area. Occipital Lobe This is located in the back of the cerebrum and houses the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for vision. 25 Frontal lobe The frontal lobe is the region of the cerebrum closest to the forehead. In the left frontal lobe, you will find Broca’s area, a brain area responsible for language production. This is also involved with central and executive functions, such as working memory. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) The PNS controls volitional (somatic nervous system) and nonvolitional (autonomic nervous system) behaviors using cranial and spinal nerves. Divided into Two Systems: Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) The ANS is primarily responsible for involuntary functions. It is further divided into the following systems, which work in tandem to regulate our “fight-or-flight” response. Sympathetic Nervous System The Sympathetic Nervous System is responsible for energizing muscles and glands, causing the release of hormones and energy. Parasympathetic Nervous System The Parasympathetic Nervous System is responsible for conserving energy and reducing the muscle and gland activity. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) The SNS is under the control of the individual, allowing humans to maneuver their own body muscles. It consists of 12 pairs of cranial and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Brain Imaging Techniques Electroencephalograph (EEG) The EEG measures electrical activity in the brain through the placement of a series of electrodes on the scalp. 26 Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) The CAT and MRI are modern noninvasive techniques used to capture pictures of detailed structures in the brain by using X-rays or magnetic energy. Positive Emission Tomography (PET) The PET is an invasive procedure in which an individual’s brain is injected with radio-labeled isotopes. The isotopes enter the active nerve cells and emit positrons, which help record blood flow in various brain regions to help scientists assess which areas were active during a given task. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Techniques (fMRIs) fMRIs are noninvasive brain imaging techniques that visibly document changes in blood flow to areas of the brain during a task. Diffuse Optical Imaging (DOI) The DOI directs infrared light into the brain and measures the light that comes back out. As the properties of light change when it passes through oxygenated blood or active neurons, they can indicate which brain areas were engaged in a particular task. This can be set-up to have high temporal and spatial resolution. Elaborate – Learning Task **This will be done after the lecture, during the synchronous session** Directions: Write down five basic personality traits or skills that you think apply to you. Observe the phrenology chart (provided by your instructor) and feel your own head starting with the front of your scalp. Circle on the chart any bumps or depressions on the left or right side. Then slowly work your fingers back, covering the middle, down by the ears, at the back of your head, and so on. Afterwards, write down the traits that the phrenology chart suggests you ought to possess (areas of bumps) or not possess (depressions). Finally, compare the list to the one you made originally about yourselves. 27 Evaluate – Quiz Directions: For 30 minutes, discuss within your group how psychologists study behavior and mental processes. Choose only three (3) from the nine (9) choices and describe them rigorously. a. Critical Thinking b. The Scientific Method c. Samples and Populations d. Problems in Generalizing from Psychological Research e. Methods of Observation f. Correlation g. The Experimental Method h. Ethics of Research with Humans i. Ethics of Research with Animals 28 LESSON 3: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Introduction Change is inevitable. As humans, we constantly grow throughout our lifespans, from conception to death. Individuals undergo many physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, and emotional changes throughout life, and these changes are the ones that developmental psychologists study. Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, students will be able to 1. Explain prenatal development and the role that sex hormones play. 2. Elucidate the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of children, adolescents, and adults. 3. Describe the types of parenting styles. 4. Explicate Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development and identify the basic conflicts that may arise on each stage. 5. Expound the emerging factors that serve as psychological strengths as each individual successfully deal with conflict. Engage – Learning Task Directions: Folklore, common sense, or nonsense? Discuss within your group and identify whether the following statements are truth or fiction. Check your answers as we go through with our lesson. 1. Your heart started beating when you were only one fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce. 2. Prior to six months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind.” 3. The architect, Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral – shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old. 4. Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging. 5. Most parents suffer from the “Empty – Nest Syndrome” when their youngest child leaves home. Explore – Learning Task Directions: Click on the link and watch this informative video to give you a glimpse of the human development. 29 Major Principles of Human Development and Approaches https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrNmnQCPjAM After you’re done watching the clip, cite atleast five (5) major points from the video together with your pair and share it with the class. Explain Prenatal Development The most dramatic gains in height and weight occur during prenatal development. Within nine months, the newly conceived organism develops from a nearly microscopic cell to a newborn child about twenty inches long. A. The three stages are: 1. Zygote: Conception to 2 weeks 2. Embryo: 2 to 8 weeks 3. Fetus: 8 weeks to birth B. This chart shows detailed month-by-month changes: First Month Fertilization occurs Zygote implants itself in the lining of the uterus ending the zygote period Rapid cell division occurs Embryonic stage lasts from end of the 2nd week to end of the 8th week Cells differentiate into three distinct layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm Nervous system begins to develop Embryo is 1/2 inch long Second Month Heart and blood vessels form Head area develops rapidly Eyes begin to form detail Internal organs grow, especially the digestive system Sex organs develop rapidly and sex is distinguished Arms and legs form and grow Heart begins to beat faintly Embryo is 1 inch long and weighs 1/10 ounce 30  Third Month Head growth occurs rapidly Bones begin to form rapidly, which marks the transition to the fetal stage The digestive organs begin to function Arms, legs, and fingers make spontaneous movements Fetus is 3 inches long and weighs 1 ounce Fourth Month Lower parts of the body show rapid growth Bones are distinct in X-ray films Reflex movement becomes more active Heartbeat detected by physician Sex organs are fully formed Fetus is 7 inches long and weighs 5 ounces Fifth Month Mother begins to feel reflex movements A fine, downy fuzz covers the entire body Vernix (a waxy coating) collects over the body Ears and nose begin to develop cartilage Fingernails and toenails begin to appear Fetus shows hiccups, thumb sucking, and kicking Fetus is 12 inches long and weighs 14 ounces Sixth Month Eyes and eyelids fully formed Fat is developing under the skin Fetus is 14 inches long and weighs 2 pounds Seventh Month Cerebral cortex of brain develops rapidly Fetus is 17 inches long and weighs 3 pounds Eighth Month Subcutaneous fat is deposited for later use Fingernails reach beyond the fingertips Fetus is 17 inches long and weighs 5 pounds Ninth Month Hair covering the entire body is shed Organ systems function actively Vernix is present over the entire body Fetus settles into position for birth Neonate is 21 inches long and weighs 7 pounds Developments in Each Stage Physical Cognitive Moral Social Emotional Development Development Development Development Development Childhood ✓ Dramatic ✓ Sensorimotor ✓ Preconvention ✓ Zone of ✓ Trust vs mistrust gains in height stage (object al level proximal ✓ Attachment and weight permanence) (obedience development (attempts to ✓ Reflexes and (range of task maintain contact 31  ✓ Motor ✓ Preoperational punishment; that the child or nearness or development stage good behavior can carry out shows anxiety ✓ Perceptual (egocentricism) allows people with the help when separated) development ✓ Concrete to satisfy their of someone (fixation time) operational stage needs and who is more (decentration and those of skilled) subjective others) ✓ Scaffolding judgments) ✓ Conventional (temporary level (right support and wrong are provided by a judged by parent or conformity to teacher to a conventional; child who is showing learning to respect to perform a authority) task) Adolescence ✓ Appearance of ✓ Formal ✓ Post ✓ Striving for ✓ Ego identity vs role secondary operations conventional independence diffusion sexual (classification, level (moral ✓ Adolescence characteristics logical thought, reasoning is sexuality (body hair, and ability to based on own (sexual deepening of hypothesize) moral behaviors – voice in males, standards) peer pressure) and rounding of the breasts and hips for females) Emerging ✓ Young adult ✓ Creativity ✓ Young adults ✓ Intimacy vs Adulthood (height of ✓ Memory establish isolation sensory functioning themselves as ✓ Generativity vs sharpness, declines with age independent stagnation strength, members of ✓ Midlife transition reaction time, the society ✓ Ego integrity vs and ✓ Many strive to despair cardiovascular advance in ✓ Tend to grow fitness; their careers psychologically accumulation of in their 20s healthier body fat; ✓ More sexually, most optimistic become readily over the past aroused) generation ✓ Middle adult (decline in strength, coordination, and stamina; menopause) ✓ Late adulthood (increase in brittleness of the bones and heightens risk of breaks due to falls; skin 32  becomes less elastic and subject to wrinkles; see and hear less accurately; immune system functions less effective; impact in sexual functioning) Stages of Psychosocial Development Comprehension of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development requires an understanding of several basic points. 1. Growth takes place according to the epigenetic principle. That is, one component part arises out of another and has its own time of ascendancy, but it does not entirely replace earlier components. 2. In every stage of life there is an interaction of opposites—that is, a conflict between a syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive) element. For example, during infancy basic trust (a syntonic tendency) is opposed to basic mistrust (a dystonic tendency). Both trust and mistrust, however, are necessary for proper adaptation. An infant who learns only to trust becomes gullible and is ill prepared for the realities encountered in later development, whereas an infant who learns only to mistrust becomes overly suspicious and cynical. Similarly, during each of the other seven stages, people must have both harmonious (syntonic) and disruptive (dystonic) experiences. 3. At each stage, the conflict between the dystonic and syntonic elements produces an ego quality or ego strength, which Erikson referred to as a basic strength. For instance, from the antithesis between trust and mistrust emerges hope, an ego quality that allows an infant to move into the next stage. Likewise, each of the other stages is marked by a basic ego strength that emerges from the clash between the harmonious and the disruptive elements of that stage. 4. Too little basic strength at any one stage results in a core pathology for that stage. For example, a child who does not acquire sufficient hope during infancy will develop the antithesis or opposite of hope, namely, withdrawal. Again, each stage has a potential core pathology. 5. Although Erikson referred to his eight stages as psychosocial stages, he never lost sight of the biological aspect of human development. 6. Events in earlier stages do not cause later personality development. Ego identity is shaped by a multiplicity of conflicts and events—past, present, and anticipated. 33  7. During each stage, but especially from adolescence forward, personality development is characterized by an identity crisis, which Erikson called “a turning point, a crucial period of increased vulnerability and heightened potential.” Thus, during each crisis, a person is especially susceptible to major modifications in identity, either positive or negative. Contrary to popular usage, an identity crisis is not a catastrophic event but rather an opportunity for either adaptive or maladaptive adjustment. Infancy − A period encompassing approximately the first year of life − Is a time of incorporation, with infants “taking in” not only through their mouth but through their various sense organs as well − Through their eyes, for example, infants take in visual stimuli. As they take in food and sensory information, infants learn to either trust or mistrust the outside world, a situation that gives them realistic hope. Basic Trust vs Basic Mistrust Basic Trust − Infants’ most significant interpersonal relations are with their primary caregiver, ordinarily their mother − If they realize that their mother will provide food regularly, then they begin to learn basic trust − If they consistently hear the pleasant, rhythmic voice of their mother, then they develop more basic trust − If they can rely on an exciting visual environment, then they solidify basic trust even more. − If their pattern of accepting things corresponds with culture’s way of giving things, then infants learn basic trust Basic Mistrust − They find no correspondence between their oral-sensory needs and their environment ** Too much trust makes them gullible and vulnerable to the vagaries of the world, whereas too little trust leads to frustration, anger, hostility, cynicism, or depression Early Childhood 34  − Young children receive pleasure not only from mastering the sphincter muscle but also from mastering other body functions such as urinating, walking, throwing, holding, and so on − Children develop a sense of control over their interpersonal environment, as well as a measure of self-control − A time of experiencing doubt and shame as children learn that many of their attempts at autonomy are unsuccessful Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt Autonomy − Children are just starting to gain a little independence and are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer − By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of independence Shame and Doubt − If parents do not maintain a reassuring, confident attitude and do not reinforce the child’s efforts to master basic motor and cognitive skills, children may begin to feel shame − Children may learn to doubt their abilities to manage the world on their own terms. − Children who experience too much doubt at this stage will lack confidence in their own powers throughout life Play Age − A period of roughly ages 3 to 5 years − Development of locomotion, language skills, curiosity, imagination, and the ability to set goals Initiative vs Guilt Initiative − As children begin to move around more easily and vigorously and as their genital interest awakens, they adopt an intrusive head-on mode of approaching the world − Children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction Guilt 35  − Children who fail to acquire the skills of being capable and able to lead others are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative School Age − Covers development from about age 6 to approximately age 12 or 13 − The social world of children is expanding beyond family to include peers, teachers, and other adult models − Their wish to know becomes strong and is tied to their basic striving for competence − In normal development, children strive industriously to read and write, to hunt and fish, or to learn the skills required by their culture Industry vs Inferiority Industry − A willingness to remain busy with something and to finish a job − School-age children learn to work and play at activities directed toward acquiring job skills and toward learning the rules of cooperation Inferiority − Earlier inadequacies contribute to children’s feelings of inferiority − If children acquire too much guilt and too little purpose during the play age, they will likely feel inferior and incompetent during the school age Adolescence − The period from puberty to young adulthood, is one of the most crucial developmental stages because, by the end of this period, a person must gain a firm sense of ego identity − They are permitted to experiment in a variety of ways and to try out new roles and belief while seeking to establish a sense of ego identity − An adaptive phase of personality development, a period of trial and error Identity vs Identity Confusion Identity − Strengthens into a crisis as young people learn to cope with the psychosocial conflict of identity versus identity confusion 36  − Emerges from two sources: (1) adolescents’ affirmation or repudiation of childhood identifications, and (2) their historical and social contexts, which encourage conformity to certain standards − Defined both positively and negatively, as adolescents are deciding what they want to become and what they believe while also discovering what they do not wish to be and what they do not believe Identity Confusion − A dilemma that may intensify if they repudiated the values of parents or reject those of the peer group − A syndrome of problems that includes a divided self – image, an inability to establish intimacy, a sense of time urgency, a lack of concentration on required tasks, and a rejection of family or community standards Young Adulthood − People must acquire the ability to fuse that identity with the identity of another person while maintaining their sense of individuality Intimacy vs Isolation Intimacy − The ability to fuse one’s identity with that of another person without fear of losing it − People who are unsure of their identity may either shy away from psychosocial intimacy or desperately seek intimacy through meaningless sexual encounters − Mature intimacy means an ability and willingness to share a mutual trust and it involves sacrifice, compromise, and commitment within a relationship of two equals Isolation − The incapacity to take chances with one’s identity by sharing true intimacy − Some people become financially or socially successful, yet retain a sense of isolation because they are unable to accept the adult responsibilities of productive work, procreation, and mature love Adulthood − The time when people begin to take their place in society and assume responsibility for whatever society produces 37  − The longest stage of development, spanning the years from about age 31 to 60 Generativity vs Stagnation Generativity − The generation of new beings as well as new products and new ideas − Is concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation, includes the procreation of children, the production of work, and the creation of new things and ideas that contribute to the building of a better world Stagnation − Failure to find a way to contribute − Individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole Old Age − Can be a time of joy, playfulness, and wonder; but it is also a time of senility, depression, and despair − Men become more nurturant and more acceptant of the pleasures of nonsexual relationships, including those with their grandchildren and great-grandchildren − Women become more interested and involved in politics, finance, and world affairs Integrity vs Despair Integrity − People are able to look back at their life with a sense of contentment and face the end of life with a sense of wisdom and no regrets − Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction − These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death Despair − Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many regrets − The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. 38 Summary of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Parenting Styles Many psychologists have been concerned about the relationships between parenting styles and the personality development of the child. Baumrind has focused largely on four aspects of parental behaviors namely: (1) strictness; (2) demands for the child to achieve intellectual, emotional, and social maturity; (3) communication ability; and (4) warmth and involvement. She labeled the three parenting styles the authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive styles. Other researchers also speak of the uninvolved style. These four styles are defined in the following ways: 1. Authoritative Parents The parents of the most competent children rate high in all four areas of behavior. They are strict (restrictive) and demand mature behavior. But they temper their strictness with desire to reason with their children and with love and support. They expect much, but they explain why and offer help. Baumrind labeled these parents 39  authoritative parents to suggest that they know what they want but are also loving and respectful to their children. 2. Authoritarian Parents Authoritarian parents view obedience as a virtue for its own sake. They have strict guidelines about what is right and wrong, and they demand that their children stick to them. Both authoritative and authoritarian parents have strict standards, but authoritative parents explain their demands and are supportive, whereas authoritarian parents rely on force and communicate poorly with their children. Authoritarian parents do not respect their children's points of view, and they may be cold and rejecting. When children ask them why they should do this or that, authoritarian parents often answer, "Because I say so!" 3. Permissive Parents Permissive parents are generally easygoing with their children. As a result, the children do pretty much what the children want. Permissive parents are warm and supportive, but poor at communicating. 4. Uninvolved Parents Uninvolved parents tend to leave their children on their own. They make few demands and show little warmth or encouragement. Elaborate – Learning Task Directions: Answer the following questions briefly. Afterwards, interact and discuss with your groupmates for 30 to 45 minutes. Share your realizations during our synchronous class. 1. Have you ever experienced identity struggles while growing up? 2. How would you describe your self – identity? What is your sense of “I”? 3. Which parenting style did your parents use to raise you? How has it impacted your developmental patterns, behavioral outcomes, and your relationship with their parents? Evaluate – Term Major Output Directions: Compile photos of you from Stage 1 up until your current stage (base on Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development). Describe in a short detail what happened during that certain stage. 40 LESSON 3: EMOTION AND PERCEPTION Introduction The perceptual process begins with receiving stimuli from the environment and ends with our interpretation of those stimuli. This process is typically unconscious and happens hundreds of thousands of times a day. Our perceptions are based on how we interpret all these different sensations, which are sensory impressions we get from the stimuli in the world around us. Perception enables us to navigate the world and to make decisions about everything, from which T-shirt to wear or how fast to run away from a bear. Emotions (which will also be discussed in this lesson) are often used interchangeably with mood, but psychologists use these words to refer two different things. Typically, the word emotion indicates a subjective, affective state that is relatively intense and that occurs in response to something we experience. We can be at the heights of joy or in the depths of despair. We might feel angry when we are betrayed, fear when we are threatened, and surprised when something unexpected happens. Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, students will be able to 1. Define and differentiate between sensation and perception 2. Describe how visual perception is organized 3. Identify the theoretical explanations of emotions Engage – Learning Task Directions: Click on the link and watch these informative videos to give you a glimpse of sensation and perception Sensation and Perception: Crash Course Psychology # 5 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=unWnZvXJH2o Perceiving is Believing: Crash Course Psychology # 7 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n46umYA_4dM After you’re done watching the clip, cite atleast five (5) major points from the video together with your pair and share it with the class. 41 Explore – Learning Task Directions: Write about a time when you felt these emotions in the space provided. EMOTION WHAT WAS HAPPENING WHEN YOU FELT THIS EMOTION? Afraid Angry Ashamed Confident Confused Sad Embarrassed Energetic Excited Glad Jealous Lonely Proud Relaxed Stressed What are the top three (3) feelings that you do not like to have? 1. _______________________________________________________________ 2. _______________________________________________________________ 3. _______________________________________________________________ Explain Sensation and Perception Sensation Sensation is the stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system (the spinal cord or brain). Sensory receptors are located in sensory organs such as the eyes and ears, the skin, and elsewhere in the body. Stimulation of the senses is an automatic process. It results from sources of energy, like light and sound, or from the presence of chemicals, as in smell and taste. 42 Perception Perception is not automatic. Perception is an active process in which sensations are organized and interpreted to form an inner representation of the world. Perception may begin with sensation, but it also reflects our experiences and expectations as it makes sense of sensory stimuli. A person standing fifteen feet away and a twelve-inch-tall doll right next to you may cast similar – sized images on the back of your eye, but whether you interpret the size to be a foot – long doll or a full-grown person fifteen feet away is a matter of perception that depends on your experience with dolls, people, and distance. Visual Perception Visual perception is the process by which we organize or make sense of the sensory impressions caused by the light that strikes our eyes. Visual perception involves our knowledge, expectations, and motivations. Whereas sensation may be thought of as a mechanical process (e.g., light stimulating the rods and cones of our retina), perception is an active process through which we interpret the world around us. Perceptual Organization Early in the 20th century, Gestalt psychologists noted certain consistencies in the way we integrate bits and pieces of sensory stimulation into meaningful wholes. They attempted to identify the rules that govern these processes. As a group, these rules are referred to as the laws of perceptual organization. 43 Figure – Ground Perception If you look out your window, you may see people, buildings, cars, and streets, or perhaps grass, trees, birds, and clouds. These objects tend to be perceived as figures against backgrounds. When figure – ground relationships are ambiguous, or capable of being interpreted in various ways, our perceptions tend to be unstable and shift back and forth. Other Gestalt Rules for Organization Gestalt psychologists have noted that our perceptions are also guided by rules or laws of proximity, similarity, continuity, and common fate. If you said three sets of lines, you were influenced by the proximity, or nearness, of some of the lines. There is no other reason for perceiving them in pairs or subgroups: All lines are parallel and equal in length. According to the law of similarity, we perceive similar objects as belonging together. For this reason, you may have been more likely to describe part B in terms of columns than in terms of rows or a grid. If you saw part C as a single (broken) line, you were probably organizing your perceptions according to the rule of continuity. That is, we perceive a series of points or a broken line as having unity. According to the law of common fate, elements seen moving together are perceived as belonging together. A group of people running in the same direction appears unified in purpose. Perception of Motion The visual perception of movement is based on change of position relative to other objects. To early scientists, whose only tool for visual observation was the naked eye, it seemed logical that the sun circled the earth. You have to be able to imagine the movement of the earth around the sun as seen from a theoretical point in outer space; you cannot observe it directly. 44 Perception of Loudness and Pitch The loudness and pitch of sounds appear to be related to the number of receptor neurons on the organ of Corti that fire and how often they fire. Frequency Theory Frequency theory notes that for us to perceive lower pitches, we need to match the frequency of the sound waves with our neural impulses. Kinesthesis and the Vestibular Sense Humans and many other animals have senses that alert them to their movements and body position without relying on vision, including kinesthesis and the vestibular sense. Kinesthesis is the sense that informs you about the position and motion of parts of the body. Vestibular sense on the other hand tell you whether you are falling and provide cues to whether your body is changing speed, such as when you are in an accelerating airplane or automobile. Emotion Emotions color our lives. We are green with envy, red with anger, blue with sorrow. Positive emotions such as love and desire can fill our days with pleasure. Negative emotions such as fear, depression, and anger can fill us with dread and make each day a chore. It can also be a response to a situation, in the way that fear is a response to a threat. An emotion can motivate behavior, as anger can motivate us to act aggressively. Emotions are defined as feeling states with physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components. Strong emotions arouse the autonomic nervous system. The greater the arousal, the more intense the emotion. 45 The Expression of Emotions Happiness and sadness are found in all cultures, but, how can we tell when other people are happy or sad? It turns out that the expression of many emotions may be universal. For instance, smiling is apparently a universal sign of friendliness and approval. Positive Psychology Many people might think that psychologists are interested only in negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and anger. Not at all. An area of psychology called positive psychology deals with positive emotions such as happiness and love, optimism and hope, and joy and sensual pleasures. Theories of Emotion 46 Elaborate – Learning Task Directions: They say “seeing is believing,” but can you really trust what you see? Do this fun activity with your partner! Try to decipher the images below. 1. Stare at the center of the fuzzy image above without blinking. After a few seconds, what do you see? 2. Is this a rabbit or a duck? 47 3. Have you noticed anything unusual in this picture? 4. Find something that’s hidden right in plain sight 48  5. What did you see first? Evaluate - Quiz Directions: Answer the following questions extensively. 1. Tell me your thoughts about precognition, psychokinesis, telepathy, and clairvoyance. 2. In your own understanding, what are emotions and why are they so important to us? 49 LESSON 4: CONSCIOUSNESS AND ITS ALTERED STATES Introduction Our lives involve regular, dramatic changes in the degree to which we are aware of our surroundings and our internal states. While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many important things going on around us. Our experiences change dramatically while we are in deep sleep and once again when we are dreaming. This lesson will discuss states of consciousness with a particular emphasis on sleep. The different stages of sleep will be identified, and sleep disorders will be described. The chapter will close with discussions of altered states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and meditation. Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, students will be able to 1. Define consciousness 2. Explain the nature of sleep and various sleep disorders 3. Explain various uses of hypnosis, forms of meditation, and biofeedback techniques in altering consciousness 4. Explain the concepts of substance abuse; identify categories of drugs and how they alter consciousness Engage – Learning Task Directions: Folklore, common sense, or nonsense? Discuss within your group and identify whether the following statements are truth or fiction. Check your answers as we go through with our lesson. 1. We act out our forbidden fantasies in our dreams. 2. Insomnia can be caused by trying too hard to fall asleep. 3. It is dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker. 4. You can be hypnotized against your will. 5. You can teach a rat to raise or lower its heart rate. 6. Many health professionals calm down hyperactive children by giving them a stimulant. 7. Coca-Cola once "added life" to its signature drink through the use of a powerful-but now illegal-stimulant. 8. The number of people who die from smoking-related causes is greater than the number lost to motor-vehicle accidents, abuse of alcohol and all other drugs, suicide, homicide, and AIDS combined. 50 Explore – Learning Task Directions: Reflect on the question below and share your insights during our synchronous class. “When you talk to yourself, who talks, and who listens?” Explain What Is Consciousness? Consciousness as Awareness One meaning of consciousness is sensory awareness of the environment. The sense of vision enables us to see, or be conscious of, the sun gleaming on the snow. The sense of hearing allows us to hear, or be conscious of, a concert. Another aspect of consciousness is selective attention. Selective attention means focusing one's consciousness on a particular stimulus. To keep your car on the road, you must pay more attention to driving conditions than to your hunger pangs or a cell-phone call. Consciousness can also be like that of direct inner awareness. Close your eyes and imagine spilling a can of bright-red paint across a black tabletop. Watch it spread across the black, shiny surface and then spill onto the floor. Although this image may be vivid, you did not "see" it literally. Neither your eyes nor any other sensory organs were involved. You were conscious of the image through direct inner awareness. Consciousness as Personal Unity As we develop, we differentiate ourselves from that which is not us. We develop a sense of being persons, individuals. There is a totality to our impressions, thoughts, and feelings that makes up our consciousness, our continuing sense of self in the world. Consciousness as the Waking State The word conscious also refers to the waking state as opposed, for example, to sleep. From this perspective, sleep, meditation, the hypnotic "trance," and the distorted perceptions that can accompany use of consciousness – altering drugs are considered altered states of consciousness. Sleep and Dreams Biological and Circadian Rhythms A circadian rhythm is a cycle that is connected with the twenty-four-hour period of the earth's rotation. A cycle of wakefulness and sleep is normally twenty-four hours long. 51 The Stages of Sleep 52 Dreams Dreams are imagery in the absence of external stimulation and can seem real. Dreams are most likely to be vivid during REM sleep. Images are vaguer and more fleeting during NREM sleep. If you sleep for eight hours and undergo five sleep cycles, you may have five dreams. Dreams may compress time the way a movie does, by skipping hours or days to a future time, but the actual action tends to take place in "real time." You can dream in black and white or in full color. Dreams as "the Residue of the Day" You may recall dreams involving fantastic adventures, but most dreams involve memories of the day gone by. If we are preoccupied with illness or death, sex or aggression, or moral dilemmas, we are likely to dream about them. The characters in our dreams are more likely to be friends and neighbors than spies, monsters, and princes. Sleep Disorders Insomnia Many people have insomnia because they try too hard to fall asleep at night. Narcolepsy A person with narcolepsy falls asleep suddenly. The sleep attack may last fifteen minutes or so, after which the person feels refreshed. Narcolepsy is thought to be a disorder of REM sleep functioning. Stimulants and antidepressant drugs have helped many people with the problem. Apnea Apnea is a dangerous sleep disorder in which the air passages are obstructed. People with apnea stop breathing periodically, up to several hundred times per night. Deep-Sleep Disorders: Sleep Terrors, Bed-Wetting, and Sleepwalking Sleep terrors are similar to, but more severe than, nightmares, which occur during REM sleep. Sleep terrors usually occur during the first two sleep cycles of the night, whereas nightmares are more likely to occur toward morning. Bed-wetting probably reflects immaturity of the nervous system. Sometimes all that is needed is reassurance that no one is to blame for bed – wetting and that most children "outgrow" it. Sleepwalkers may roam about nightly while 53 their parents fret about possible accidents. Sleepwalkers typically do not remember their excursions, although they may respond to questions while they are up and about. Mild tranquilizers and maturity typically put an end to it. Altering Consciousness through Hypnosis, Meditation, and Biofeedback Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness in which people are suggestible and behave as though they are in a trance. Some psychologists use hypnosis to help clients reduce anxiety, overcome fears, or lessen the perception of chronic pain. Meditation involves thinking deeply about the universe or about one's place in the world, often within a spiritual context. The kinds of meditation that helping professionals speak of tend to refer to rituals, exercises, even passive observation activities that alter the normal relationship between the person and the environment. They are methods of suspending problem solving, planning, worries, and awareness of the events of the day. Biofeedback is a system that provides, or "feeds back," information about a bodily function. People have learned to change some bodily functions voluntarily, including heart rate that were once considered beyond conscious control. Altering Consciousness through Drugs 54 Elaborate – Learning Task Directions: Gather as a group and make an informative TikTok video. Be creative! You will be presenting this during our synchronous class. Choose only one (1) topic: Consciousness Sleep Dreams Drugs and their Effects Evaluate – Quiz Directions: Answer the quiz on Google Classroom (via Google Forms). 55 LESSON 5: THINKING, LEARNING AND MEMORY Introduction Psychologists have been studying the nature of learning for more than a century. In the process they have taken a variety of theoretical perspectives. Diverse perspectives of learning complement rather than contradict one another, and together they can give us a rich, multifaceted picture of human learning. This lesson will help you understand the process of how memory works or fails to work. In some articles, we somehow have encountered them describing memory as a perfect recording system. However, our memories are complex constructions that are prone to biases and mistakes. Different stages of the memory process and the explanation of how encoding, storage, and retrieval act as interwoven processes that influence our memories are discussed in this lesson. Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, students will be able to 1. Describe the principles and methods of classical conditioning and operant conditioning 2. Discuss cognitive factors in learning 3. Define memory and differentiate between types of memories 4. Explain the biological aspects of memory Engage – Learning Task Directions: Let’s play some games! After the activity, screenshot the page where your scores are indicated. Have I Seen It or Not? https://www.mentalup.co/samples/game-v2/game2?referrer=blog-brain-games-for- adults&page=desktop Spot the Difference https://www.mentalup.co/samples/game-v2/game11?referrer=blog-brain-games-for- adults&page=desktop 56 Explore – Learning Task Directions: Click on the link and watch this informative video to give you a glimpse of learning and memory Information Storage and the Brain: Learning and Memory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQDiUKwXLVI After you’re done watching the clip, cite atleast five (5) major points from the video together with your pair and share it with the class. Explain The 4 Factors That Form The Definition of Learning Learning is inferred from a change in behavior/performance Learning results in an inferred change in memory Learning is the result of experience Learning is relatively permanent What is Behavior Potential? Once something is learned, an organism can exhibit a behavior that indicates learning as occurred. Thus, once a behavior has been learned, it can be exhibited by performance of a corresponding behavior. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a reflexive response that was originally evoked by a different stimulus. 1. Ivan Pavlov was studying salivation in dogs - he was measuring the amount of salivation produced by the salivary glands of dogs by presenting them meat powder through a food dispenser. The dispenser would deliver the meat powder to which the animals salivated. However, what Pavlov noticed was that the food dispenser made a sound when delivering the powder, and that the dogs salivated before the powder was delivered. He realized that the dogs associated the sound (which occurred 57  seconds before the powder actually arrived) with the delivery of the food. Thus, the dogs had "learned" that when the sound occurred, the meat powder was going to arrive. This is conditioning (Stimulus-Response; S-R Bonds). The stimulus (sound of food dispenser) produced a response (salivation). It is important to note that at this point, we are talking about reflexive responses (salivation is automatic). 2. Terminologies a. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur). b. Unconditioned Response (UR) - an unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning. c. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. d. Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning. 3. Basic Principles: a. Acquisition - formation of a new CR tendency. This means that when an organism learns something new, it has been "acquired". b. Extinction - this is a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR tendency. Extinction occurs from multiple presentations of CS without the US. c. Spontaneous Recovery - sometimes there will be a reappearance of a response that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the CS. It is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere. d. Stimulus Generalization - a response to a specific stimulus becomes associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli. e. Stimulus Discrimination - learning to respond to one stimulus and not another. Thus, an organisms becomes conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli. f. Higher Order Conditioning - a CS can be used to produce a response from another neutral stimulus (can evoke CS). Operant Conditioning 58 Operant conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which voluntary (controllable; non-reflexive) behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished (or not reinforced). Operant Conditioning is different from Classical Conditioning in that the behaviors studied in Classical Conditioning are reflexive (for example, salivating). However, the behaviors studied and governed by the principles of Operant Conditioning are non- reflexive (for example, gambling). So, compared to Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning attempts to predict non-reflexive, more complex behaviors, and the conditions in which they will occur. In addition, Operant Conditioning deals with behaviors that are performed so that the organism can obtain reinforcement. Principles of Reinforcement Skinner identified two types of reinforcing events - those in which a reward is given; and those in which something bad is removed. In either case, the point of reinforcement is to increase the frequency or probability of a response occurring again. Positive Reinforcement - give an organism a pleasant stimulus when the operant response is made. For example, a rat presses the lever (operant response) and it receives a treat (positive reinforcement) Negative Reinforcement - take away an unpleasant stimulus when the operant response is made. Two Types of Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer The stimulus that naturally strengthens any response that precedes it (e.g., food, water, sex) without the need for any learning on the part of the organism. These reinforcers are naturally reinforcing. Secondary/Conditioned Reinforcer A previously neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to strengthen responses because the stimulus has been paired with a primary reinforcer. For example, an organism may become conditioned to the sound of food dispenser, which occurs after the operant response is made. Thus, the sound of the food dispenser becomes reinforcing. Notice the similarity to Classical Conditioning, with the exception that the behavior is voluntary and occurs before the presentation of a reinforcer. Schedules of Reinforcement 59 a. Fixed Ratio (FR) - reinforcement given after every N th responses, where N is the size of the ratio (i.e., a certain number of responses have to occur before getting reinforcement). b. Variable Ratio (VR) - the variable ration schedule is the same as the FR except that the ratio varies, and is not stable like the FR schedule. Reinforcement is given after every N th response, but N is an average. c. Fixed Interval (FI) - a designated amount of time must pass, and then a certain response must be made in order to get reinforcement. d. Variable Interval (VI) - same as FI but now the time interval varies. Punishment Whereas reinforcement increases the probability of a response occurring again, the premise of punishment is to decrease the frequency or probability of a response occurring again. Skinner did not believe that punishment was as powerful a form of control as reinforcement, even though it is the so commonly used. Thus, it is not truly the opposite of reinforcement like he originally thought, and the effects are normally short-lived. Two Types of Punishment: Positive Positive punishment is a presentation of an aversive stimulus to decrease the probability of an operant response occurring again. For example, a child reaches for a cookie before dinner, and you slap his hand. Negative Negative punishment is the removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the probability of an operant response occurring again. For example, each time a child says a curse word, you remove one dollar from their piggy bank. 60 Memory Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. It is built on three basic process- encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding – initial recording of information Storage – Information saved for future use Retrieval – recovery of stored information Sensory Memory Is the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only as instant Short-term Memory Memory that holds information for fifteen to twenty-five seconds. Chunk - a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be storied as a unit in short-term memory. Chunk can be individual letters or numbers, permitting us to hold a seven- digit phone number in short term memory. Rehersal - the repetiti