Introduction To Psychology PDF - University of Baguio
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This is a self-regulated learning module for Introduction to Psychology at the University of Baguio. It covers topics such as the nature of psychology, development of human behavior, sensation and perception, and states of consciousness.
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SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION AND LIBERAL ARTS CODE DESCRIPTION: INTRODUCTION INTPSY1 TO PSYCHOLOGY A Self-regulated Learning Module A Self-regulated Learning Module 1 ...
SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION AND LIBERAL ARTS CODE DESCRIPTION: INTRODUCTION INTPSY1 TO PSYCHOLOGY A Self-regulated Learning Module A Self-regulated Learning Module 1 Table of Contents WELCOME TO INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY............................................................ 4 I. COURSE CODE AND COURSE TITLE....................................................................................... 4 II. COURSE DESCRIPTION.............................................................................................................. 4 III. REQUIREMENTS OF THE COURSE....................................................................................... 4 IV. LEARNING COMPETENCIES................................................................................................... 6 V. STUDY SCHEDULE....................................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER 1. NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY............................................................................... 7 1.1 What is Science?............................................................................................................................. 7 1.2 What is Psychology?....................................................................................................................... 8 1.3 Four Goals of Psychology............................................................................................................... 8 1.4 History of Psychology..................................................................................................................... 8 1.5 Psychology as a Science.................................................................................................................. 9 1.6 The Process of Scientific Research.............................................................................................. 11 1.7 Major Perspectives in Psychology............................................................................................... 13 1.8 Approaches to Research............................................................................................................... 14 1.9 Fields in Psychology..................................................................................................................... 16 1.10 Careers in Psychology................................................................................................................ 17 CHAPTER 2. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR.................................................... 20 2.1 Nature and Nurture...................................................................................................................... 20 2.2 Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth............................................................................ 211 2.3 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior.................................................................................. 23 2.4 Parts of the Nervous System........................................................................................................ 29 2.5 The Endocrine System.................................................................................................................. 40 CHAPTER 3. SENSATION AND PERCEPTION..................................................................... 44 3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 44 3.2 Vision............................................................................................................................................. 46 3.3 Hearing (Audition)....................................................................................................................... 48 3.4 Touch............................................................................................................................................. 50 3.5 Smell and Taste: The Chemical Senses....................................................................................... 51 3.6 Putting It All Together: Multimodal Perception........................................................................ 52 3.7 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 53 A Self-regulated Learning Module 2 CHAPTER 4. STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS........................................................................ 54 4.1 What is Consciousness?................................................................................................................ 54 4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep.............................................................................................................. 59 4.3 Stages of Sleep............................................................................................................................... 60 4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders..................................................................................................... 64 4.5 Substance Use and Abuse............................................................................................................. 68 4.6 Other States of Consciousness..................................................................................................... 72 CHAPTER 5. COGNITIVE PROCESSES................................................................................. 75 6.1 What is Learning?...................................................................................................................... 755 6.2 Classical Conditioning.................................................................................................................. 76 6.3 Operant Conditioning.................................................................................................................. 78 6.4 Observational Learning (Modeling)............................................................................................ 83 6.5 What is Cognition?....................................................................................................................... 86 6.7 Intelligence.................................................................................................................................... 90 6.8 Memory......................................................................................................................................... 94 6.9 Putting It All Together: Improving Your Memory.................................................................. 101 6.10 Forgetting and Amnesia........................................................................................................... 101 CHAPTER 6. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION.................................................................... 1077 6.1 What is Motivation?................................................................................................................... 107 6.2 Theories About Motivation........................................................................................................ 109 6.3 Emotion......................................................................................................................................1122 6.4 Theories of Emotion................................................................................................................... 113 CHAPTER 7. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND MENTAL HEALTH.................................... 118 7.1 Overview of Personality............................................................................................................. 118 7.2 Overview of Social Psychology.................................................................................................. 120 7.3 Overview of I/O Psychology....................................................................................................... 121 7.4 Overview of Abnormal Psychology........................................................................................... 122 7.5 Stress, Coping, and Mental Health...........................................................................................1257 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 1311 A Self-regulated Learning Module 3 WELCOME TO INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY I. COURSE CODE AND COURSE TITLE Course Code : INTPSY1 Course Title : Introduction to Psychology II. COURSE DESCRIPTION The course is primarily an introductory course to psychology that includes a broad coverage of the theoretical and conceptual approaches and empirical foundations of psychology in its main field. This course aims to give a better insight on the complexities of human behavior and experiences. It encompasses theories, concepts, and empirical findings that focus on complex human behavior—how and why we think, feel, and behave the way we do, how we act and interact with others, and why and how we become the unique individuals that we are. III. REQUIREMENTS OF THE COURSE TOUCH BASE Touch Base is a discussion prompt that you are required to answer on our virtual discussion boards or forum. BREAKOUT SESSIONS Breakout Sessions are small group discussions that will allow you to have an exchange of ideas with your classmates. After each breakout session, a representative for each group will share the overview of what was discussed in the breakout sessions. GROUP ACTIVITY Group Activities are activities that will be done outside of the class hours. These are tasks wherein you will be asked to prepare in advance and are aimed to enhance your learning experience in the course. CONCEPT CHECK Concept Checks are brief multiple-choice assessments that will test how much is retained in each chapter. A Self-regulated Learning Module 4 FINAL PROJECT: Video Campaign on Mental Health and COVID-19 People adjust to various situations differently. Now that we are facing a health crisis, many experts in mental health are anticipating a surge in demand for mental health services as COVID- 19 cuts through the different aspects of our lives. As students of psychology, it is important that we use our voice to raise awareness about mental health. In this regard, your final project for Introduction to Psychology is to make a video campaign on the effects of COVID-19 on our mental health and ways to alleviate such effects. The video shall have a maximum playing time of 3 minutes, can either be in English or Filipino. The video should NOT contain any offensive element, including but not limited to, inhumane or overly sexual images and foul or derogatory language. The video should contain subtitles. At the end of the video, the following should be acknowledged in writing: The name of your group and your section e.g., (Dalub-Isipan [KAC-1]) The names of all group members, with specific roles (i.e., creator, writer, director, editor, actors, etc.) References and other sources of information used in the video Rubric. Criteria Exceeds Meets Does Not Meet Missing Elements Expectations Expectations Expectations Accuracy and (21-25 points) (15-20 points) (10-14 points) (0-9 points) Quality of The video campaign The video campaign The video campaign The video campaign shows the negative shows the effects of shows some of the is about the COVID- Content effects of the the COVID-19 effects of the 19 pandemic but COVID-19 pandemic pandemic to one’s COVID-19 pandemic does not incorporate to one’s mental mental health and to one’s mental any topics on mental health and outlines outlines ways to cope health and outlines health or psychology. ways to cope with with this health crisis some ways to cope this health crisis very well. Some concepts with this health well. Concepts in in psychology were crisis. psychology were applied in the video. applied in the video. Quality of (11-15 points) (8-10 points) (5-7 points) (0-4 points) Execution and The overall The overall The overall The video campaign execution of the execution of the execution of the is not engaging and Creativity video campaign is video campaign is video campaign is does not follow a exemplary and good and meets hard to follow and coherent sequence. exceeds expectations. lacks a coherent expectations. Storytelling was sequence. Storytelling was very interesting. engaging and interesting. Relevance (9-10 points) (5-8 points) (3-4 points) (0-2 points) The information The information The information The video campaign provided in the video provided in the video provided in the video did not provide any campaign were campaign were campaign were relevant information. highly relevant. relevant. somewhat relevant. Total __/50 points A Self-regulated Learning Module 5 IV. LEARNING COMPETENCIES Program Outcomes for Bachelor of Science in Psychology The graduates have the ability to: 1. demonstrate the capability to discuss and analyze the major theories and concepts in psychology (knowledge in psychology); 2. demonstrate and apply the methods of psychological inquiry in building knowledge on local culture and context (psychological research); 3. demonstrate and apply psychological theories and methods in personal and professional setting (application of psychology); 4. demonstrate capability for self-reflection and independent learning in graduate education or in a professional context (independent learning); 5. demonstrate professional and ethical behaviors in research and practice in psychology (ethics); 6. demonstrate harmonious interpersonal relationship with colleagues, clients and others in diverse cultural settings (interpersonal skills); and 7. demonstrate the ability to conduct psychological assessments and evaluation (psychological assessment). V. STUDY SCHEDULE UNIT WEEK NO. DURATION I. Nature of Psychology Week 1-2 7 hours II. Development of Human Behavior Week 3-5 10 hours FIRST GRADING EXAMINATION Week 6 1 hour III. Sensation and Perception Week 7-8 6 hours IV. States of Consciousness Week 9-10 6 hours V. Cognitive Process Week 10-11 5 hours MIDTERM EXAMINATION Week 12 1 hour VI. Motivation and Emotion Week 13-14 6 hours VII. Applied Psychology and Mental Health Week 15-18 11 hours FINAL EXAMINATION Week 18 1 hour TOTAL HOURS 54 HOURS A Self-regulated Learning Module 6 CHAPTER 1. NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY Learning Outcomes: 1. Define psychology as a science. 2. Discuss the goals and history of psychology. 3. Examine the different approaches of psychology. 4. Describe the different fields in psychology and their relevant careers. 1.1 What is Science? (Diener, 2020) What is this process we call “science,” which has so dramatically changed the world? Ancient people were more likely to believe in magical and supernatural explanations for natural phenomena such as solar eclipses or thunderstorms. By contrast, scientifically minded people try to figure out the natural world through testing and observation. Specifically, science is the use of systematic observation in order to acquire knowledge. For example, children in a science class might combine vinegar and baking soda to observe the bubbly chemical reaction. These empirical methods are wonderful ways to learn about the physical and biological world. Science is not magic—it will not solve all human problems, and might not answer all our questions about behavior. Nevertheless, it appears to be the most powerful method we have for acquiring knowledge about the observable world. The essential elements of science are as follows: 1. Systematic observation is the core of science. Scientists observe the world, in a very organized way. We often measure the phenomenon we are observing. We record our observations so that memory biases are less likely to enter in to our conclusions. We are systematic in that we try to observe under controlled conditions, and also systematically vary the conditions of our observations so that we can see variations in the phenomena and understand when they occur and do not occur. A study participant wears an electroencephalogram (EEG) cap and uses a touch pad to react to images on a computer screen. An experimenter stands by observing. 2. Observation leads to hypotheses we can test. When we develop hypotheses and theories, we state them in a way that can be tested. For example, you might make the claim that candles made of paraffin wax burn more slowly than do candles of the exact same size and shape made from bee’s wax. This claim can be readily tested by timing the burning speed of candles made from these materials. 3. Science is democratic. People in ancient times may have been willing to accept the views of their kings or pharaohs as absolute truth. These days, however, people are more likely to want to be able to form their own opinions and debate conclusions. Scientists are skeptical and have open discussions about their observations and theories. These debates often occur as scientists publish competing findings with the idea that the best data will win the argument. 4. Science is cumulative. We can learn the important truths discovered by earlier scientists and build on them. Any physics student today knows more about physics than Sir Isaac Newton did even though Newton was possibly the most brilliant physicist of all time. A crucial aspect of scientific progress is that after we learn of earlier advances, we can build upon them and move farther along the path of knowledge. A Self-regulated Learning Module 7 1.2 What is Psychology? The word psychology was derived from two Greek words: psyche which means mind or soul and logos which means study or science. As such, psychology was initially defined as the study or the science of the mind or the soul. However, early scholars in psychology did not agree with this definition since the mind or the soul are not observable. Hence, they came up with a more comprehensive definition that psychology is a science that seeks to measure or describe, explain, predict, and sometimes control or change the behavior of man and animals. This definition shifted the focus of study from the mind or the soul to behavior, which is an aspect of the person that can be observed. Behavior can either be overt or covert. Directly observable behavior such as walking, dancing, talking, etc. are examples of overt behavior while behaviors that are not directly observed like our thoughts and feelings are covert behavior. Behavior has three components or the ABCs of behavior which are affective, behavioral, and cognitive. The affective component refers to our attitudes, feelings, moods; while the behavioral component pertains to actions, physical movements or psychomotor; and lastly, the cognitive component which encompasses our attention, memory, and thoughts. 1.3 Four Goals of Psychology 1. To measure or describe behavior. Ψ We try to answer the question: HOW? e.g., intelligence tests, personality tests, strengths and weaknesses of a person, etc. 2. To explain behavior. Ψ We try to answer the question: WHY? e.g., testifying in court (particularly in annulment or custody cases) 3. To predict behavior. Ψ We try to answer the question: WHAT WILL—? e.g., politics, consumer behavior 4. To control or change behavior. Ψ We try to answer the question: HOW TO IMPROVE? e.g., guidance and counseling, psychotherapy 1.4 History of Psychology The formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline is generally considered to be in late nineteenth century, when, in Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental laboratory devoted to psychological phenomena. At about the same time, William James was setting up his laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. When Wundt set up his laboratory in 1879, his goal was to study the structures of the mind and their relationship to conscious experience—an approach he called structuralism (Feldman, 2020). A Self-regulated Learning Module 8 In the Philippines, the earliest known date of psychology’s presence is as early as the 17 th century. At the time, Spaniards taught psychology in two universities, the University of Santo Tomas in Manila and the University of San Carlos in Cebu (History of Philippine Psychology, n.d.). In 1926, the University of the Philippines established the first psychology department with Dr. Agustin Alonzo as the first chairman. Many pioneers of psychology in the Philippines followed suit. Sinforoso Padilla established the Psychological Clinic at the University of the Philippines. Jesus Perpiñan earned his doctorate degree from Iowa State University and founded the Psychological Clinic at Far Eastern University. Elias Bumatay also earned his doctorate degree in psychology from the University of Texas and was the dean of National University’s College of Education. Estefania Aldaba-Lim who got her PhD in psychology from the University of Michigan was the first Filipino woman to do so. She also founded the Philippine Psychological Corporation and started the psychology program at the Philippine Women’s University. Alfredo Lagmay who headed the psychology department at the University of the Philippines for 22 years. Mariano Obias who received his doctorate in comparative psychology from Stanford University and was a personnel officer at Caltex Philippines. Fr. Jaime Bulatao, SJ who got his doctorate in clinical psychology from Fordham University and was the one who established the department of psychology at the Ateneo de Manila University (History of Philippine Psychology, n.d.). The Psychological Association of the Philippines (PAP) was founded in 1962 by Dr. Agustin Alonzo, Fr. Jaime Bulatao, SJ, Alfredo Lagmay Estefania Aldaba-Lim, Mariano Obias, Sinforoso Padilla, and Jesus Perpiñan (Psychological Association of the Philippines, n.d.). Virgilio Enriquez, the Father of Sikolohiyang Pilipino, indigenized psychology in the Philippines and founded the Pampansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino (PSSP) in 1975 (Pambansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino, n.d.). On March 16, 2010, the Psychology Bill was signed into law. Republic Act No. 10029 or the Philippine Psychology Act of 2009 is an act regulating the practice of psychology in the Philippines. 1.5 Psychology as a Science (Diener, 2020) Even in modern times many people are skeptical that psychology is really a science. To some degree this doubt stems from the fact that many psychological phenomena such as depression, intelligence, and prejudice do not seem to be directly observable in the same way that we can observe the changes in ocean tides or the speed of light. Because thoughts and feelings are invisible many early psychological researchers chose to focus on behavior. You might have noticed that some people act in a friendly and outgoing way while others appear to be shy and withdrawn. If you have made these types of observations then you are acting just like early psychologists who used behavior to draw inferences about various types of personality. By using behavioral measures and rating scales it is possible to measure thoughts and feelings. This is similar to how other researchers explore “invisible” phenomena such as the way that educators measure academic performance or economists measure quality of life. One important pioneering researcher was Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin who lived in England during the late 1800s. Galton used patches of color to test people’s ability to distinguish between them. He also invented the self-report questionnaire, in which people offered their own expressed judgments or opinions on various matters. Galton was able to use self-reports to examine—among other things—people’s differing ability to accurately judge distances. A Self-regulated Learning Module 9 Although he lacked a modern understanding of genetics Galton also had the idea that scientists could look at the behaviors of identical and fraternal twins to estimate the degree to which genetic and social factors contribute to personality; a puzzling issue we currently refer to as the “nature-nurture question.” In modern times psychology has become more sophisticated. Researchers now use better measures, more sophisticated study designs and better statistical analyses to explore human nature. Simply take the example of studying the emotion of happiness. How would you go about studying happiness? One straightforward method is to simply ask people about their happiness and to have them use a numbered scale to indicate their feelings. There are, of course, several problems with this. People might lie about their happiness, might not be able to accurately report on their own happiness, or might not use the numerical scale in the same way. With these limitations in mind modern psychologists employ a wide range of methods to assess happiness. They use, for instance, “peer report measures” in which they ask close friends and family members about the happiness of a target individual. Researchers can then compare these ratings to the self-report ratings and check for discrepancies. Researchers also use memory measures, with the idea that dispositionally positive people have an easier time recalling pleasant events and negative people have an easier time recalling unpleasant events. Modern psychologists even use biological measures such as saliva cortisol samples (cortisol is a stress related hormone) or fMRI images of brain activation (the left pre-frontal cortex is one area of brain activity associated with good moods). Despite our various methodological advances it is true that psychology is still a very young science. While physics and chemistry are hundreds of years old, psychology is barely a hundred and fifty years old and most of our major findings have occurred only in the last 60 years. There are legitimate limits to psychological science but it is a science nonetheless. A Self-regulated Learning Module 10 BREAKOUT SESSION: Myths and Facts About Psychology Instruction. Share popular psychology myths that you know. Here are some questions you might want to answer: 1. What do other people know of and think of psychology? 2. What are people’s reactions when they find out that you are taking B.S. Psychology in college? After 10 minutes, each small group will share one example of popular belief that the group talked about. Rubric. Criteria Advanced Proficient Basic Deficient Presentation (5 points) (4 points) (3 points) (0-2 points) The flow of the The flow of the The flow of the There was no clear presentation presentation presentation flow in the enhanced the quality enhanced the quality somehow enhanced presentation. There of the presentation of the presentation the quality of the were no myth and very well. The well. The reporter presentation. The fact about reporter did not read did not read and the myth and fact about psychology and the myth and myth and fact about psychology were explained. fact about psychology were generally explained. psychology were explained well. explained very well. Content (5 points) (4 points) (3 points) (0-2 points) The content was The content was Shows some Does not seem to thoroughly elaborated by understanding of the understand the myth elaborated by integrating resources myth and fact about and fact about integrating resources that enhanced the psychology being psychology being that enhanced the richness of the explained. explained. richness of the sharing. Shows a sharing. Shows a full good understanding understanding of the of the myth and fact myth and fact about about psychology psychology being being explained. explained. Participation (5 points) (4 points) (3 points) (0-2 points) All members shared Most members Some of the There was no their ideas and all shared ideas and all members shared participation from members responded members responded their ideas and the members. to one another. to one another. responded to one another Total __/15 points 1.6 The Process of Scientific Research (Spielman, Jenkins, & Lovett, 2020) Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method. Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. The types of reasoning within the circle are called deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning, ideas are tested in the real world; in inductive reasoning, real-world observations lead to new ideas. These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects. A Self-regulated Learning Module 11 Psychological research relies on both inductive and deductive reasoning. In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this: All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes, however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion. Consider this argument: All ducks are born with the ability to see. Quackers is a duck. Therefore, Quackers was born with the ability to see. Scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypotheses. Returning to the example of the ducks, researchers might design a study to test the hypothesis that if all living things require energy to survive, then ducks will be found to require energy to survive. Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based. For instance, you may notice that your favorite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on trees; therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees. This would be an example of inductive reasoning, and, clearly, the existence of strawberries, blueberries, and kiwi demonstrate that this generalization is not correct despite it being based on a number of direct observations. Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning. In the end, science involves both deductive and inductive processes. For example, case studies, are heavily weighted on the side of empirical observations. Thus, case studies are closely associated with inductive processes as researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting patterns (new ideas) in the data. Experimental research, on the other hand, puts great emphasis on deductive reasoning. We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of ideas are they, exactly? A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory. A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is A Self-regulated Learning Module 12 extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests. The scientific method involves deriving hypotheses from theories and then testing those hypotheses. If the results are consistent with the theory, then the theory is supported. If the results are not consistent, then the theory should be modified and new hypotheses will be generated. 1.7 Major Perspectives in Psychology (Feldman, 2020) The perspectives of psychology offer distinct outlooks and emphasize different factors. Just as we can use more than one map to find our way around a particular region—for instance, a map that shows roads and highways and another map that shows major landmark—psychologists developed a variety of approaches to understanding behavior. When considered jointly, the different perspectives provide the means to explain behavior in its amazing variety. Today, the field of psychology includes five major perspectives: 1. Neuroscience perspective. The approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions. 2. Psychodynamic perspective. The approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control. 3. Behavioral perspective. The view that looks at the behavior itself as the problem. 4. Cognitive perspective. The view that suggests that people’s thoughts and beliefs are a central component of abnormal behavior. 5. Humanistic perspective. The approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior. A Self-regulated Learning Module 13 GROUP ACTIVITY: The Different Perspectives in Psychology Instruction. Research about the different perspectives in psychology and prepare a 10-minute presentation. Your presentation should contain the following: 1. Overview 2. View of human nature 3. Arguments about behavior Rubric. Criteria Advanced Proficient Basic Deficient Presentation (5 points) (4 points) (3 points) (0-2 points) The flow of the The flow of the The flow of the There was no clear presentation presentation presentation flow in the enhanced the quality enhanced the quality somehow enhanced presentation. There of the presentation of the presentation the quality of the were no perspective very well. The well. The reporter presentation. The in psychology reporter did not read did not read and the perspective in explained. and the perspective perspective in psychology was in psychology was psychology was generally explained. explained very well. explained well. Content (14-15 points) (11-13 points) (8-10 points) (0-7 points) The content was The content was Shows some Does not seem to thoroughly elaborated by understanding of the understand the elaborated by integrating resources perspective in perspective in integrating resources that enhanced the psychology being psychology being that enhanced the richness of the presented. presented. richness of the sharing. Shows a sharing. Shows a full good understanding understanding of the of the perspective in perspective in psychology being psychology being presented. presented. Participation (5 points) (4 points) (3 points) (0-2 points) All members shared Most members Some of the There was no their ideas and shared ideas and members shared participation from contributed to the contributed to the their ideas and the members. overall presentation. overall presentation contributed to the overall presentation. Total __/25 1.8 Approaches to Research (Feldman, 2020) Research is a systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge—is a central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology. It provides the key to understanding the degree to which hypotheses (and the theories behind them) are accurate. 1.8.1 Descriptive Research An approach to research designed to systematically investigate a person, group, or patterns of behavior. These methods include: 1. Archival Research. Research in which existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis. A Self-regulated Learning Module 14 2. Naturalistic Observation. Research in which an investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation. 3. Survey Research. Research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes. 4. Case Study. An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people. 5. Correlational Research. Research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated.” 1.8.2 Experimental Research The investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately producing a change in one. Variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation. The experiment manipulation is the change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation. The manipulation implemented by the experimenter is called a treatment. The experimenter will also have another group who will receive either no treatment or a different treatment. Any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment is called an experimental group and a group that receives no treatment is a control group. The independent variable is the condition that is manipulated by an experimenter and the variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable is called the dependent variable. A Self-regulated Learning Module 15 1.9 Fields in Psychology (Feldman, 2020) As the study of psychology has grown.it has given rise to a number of subfields. Subfield Description 1. Behavioral genetics Studies the inheritance of traits related to behavior. 2. Behavioral neuroscience Examines the biological basis of behavior. 3. Clinical psychology Deals with the study of diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders. 4. Clinical neuropsychology Unites the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders. 5. Cognitive psychology Focuses on the study of higher mental processes. 6. Counseling psychology Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems. 7. Cross-cultural psychology Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups. 8. Developmental psychology Examines how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death. 9. Educational psychology Concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as the relationship between motivation and school performance. 10. Environmental psychology Considers the relationship between people and their physical environment. 11. Evolutionary psychology Considers how our behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. 12. Experimental psychology Studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world. 13. Forensic psychology Focuses on legal issues, such as determining the accuracy of witness memories. 14. Health psychology Explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease. 15. Industrial/organizational psychology Concerned with the psychology of the workplace. 16. Personality psychology Focuses on the consistency in people’s behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another. 17. Psychology of women Focuses on issues such as discrimination against women and the causes of violence against women 18. School psychology Devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems. 19. Social psychology Study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. 20. Sport psychology Applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise. A Self-regulated Learning Module 16 1.10 Careers in Psychology (American Psychological Association, 2011) Psychology is an extraordinarily diverse field with hundreds of career paths. Some specialties, like caring for people with mental and emotional disorders, are familiar to most of us. Others, like helping with the design of advanced computer systems or studying how we remember things, are less well known. What all psychologists have in common is a shared interest in the minds and behaviors of both human and nonhuman animals. In their work, psychologists draw on an ever-expanding body of scientific knowledge about how we think, act, and feel, and they apply the information to their areas of expertise. Many psychologists work in more than one setting. For instance, college professors often consult for industry or see clients on a part-time basis. Although it is possible to identify a host of different work settings, we’ll consider some of the most prominent examples in this section. 1.10.1 Psychologists Conduct Research Many psychologists conduct research that runs the gamut from studies of basic brain functions to individual behavior to the behavior of complex social organizations. Subjects of such scientific study include nonhuman animals, human infants, both well-functioning and emotionally disturbed people, older persons, students, workers, and just about every other population one can imagine. Some research takes place in laboratories where the study conditions can be carefully controlled; some is carried out in the field, such as the workplace, the highway, schools, and hospitals, where behavior is studied as it occurs naturally. Much of the laboratory research is conducted in universities, government agencies (such as the national institutes of health and the armed services), and private research organizations. Whereas most psychological scientists are engaged in the actual planning and conduct of research, some are employed in management or administration—usually after having served as active researchers. 1.10.2 Psychologists Study Social Development Developmental psychologists study the many behavioral and psychological changes that occur throughout the life span. 1.10.3 Psychologists Teach and Provide Services To Students Psychologists provide a number of services—both direct and indirect—to children, youth, and families in schools at all levels, from early childhood education settings through college. Some focus on improving student learning and behavior through research on topics such as motivation and cognitive processes, while others provide psychological services within educational settings. Psychologists work within specialty areas of learning, too, such as the arts and sports. A Self-regulated Learning Module 17 School psychologists help students with learning or behavior problems in the classroom and serve as members of the interdisciplinary teams that develop individual educational plans for students with learning disabilities, social and emotional issues, or other special needs. They work with students and staff members on schoolwide issues such as bullying prevention, and they consult with teachers on problems in the classroom. 1.10.4 Psychologists Promote Physical and Mental Health Psychologists as health providers span a large and diverse spectrum of subfields. Some psychologists work alone, with patients and clients coming to the psychologist’s office. Others are involved in health care teams and typically work in hospitals, medical schools, outpatient clinics, nursing homes, pain clinics, rehabilitation facilities, and community health and mental health centers. Increasingly, psychologists in independent practice are contracting on either a part-time or a full-time basis with organizations to provide a wide range of services. For example, a psychologist can join a health practice and work with a team of other health care providers, such as physicians, nutritionists, physiotherapists, and social workers, to prevent or treat illness. This team approach, which is likely to become more common in the future, frequently includes efforts to change unhealthy behaviors and ensure that patients follow the recommended treatment. The team also helps patients cope with stress. Psychologists also instruct students who are training to become health care professionals, such as physicians and nurses, about the psychological factors involved in illness. And they advise health care providers already in practice so that illnesses with symptoms that have a psychological component can be better diagnosed and treated. 1.10.5 Psychologists Study the Work Environment and Performance Issues Anywhere people work, and anything they do while at work, is of interest to psychologists. Psychologists study what makes people effective, satisfied, and motivated in their jobs; what distinguishes good workers or managers from poor ones; and what conditions of work promote high or low productivity, morale, and safety. Some psychologists design programs for recruiting, selecting, placing, and training employees. They evaluate, monitor, and improve performance. They help make changes in the way the organization is set up. Others help design the actual tasks, tools, and environments people must deal with when doing their jobs. These specialists can also help design the products that organizations create and conduct research related to product design. For example, they play a big role in making computer hardware and software more user friendly. Psychologists with training in mental health and health care also deal with the health and adjustment of individuals in the work setting. They work with employee assistance plans that provide help with drug or alcohol addiction problems, depression, and other disorders; they also foster healthy behavior. Others work on performance issues in areas such as sport psychology, where they may provide athletes with counseling, work with them to improve motivation and performance, explore psychological considerations in sports injuries and rehabilitation, and perform a range of tasks related to sports performance and education. A Self-regulated Learning Module 18 TOUCH BASE: Learning About Psychology Instruction. Answer the following questions on our discussion board: 1. Why are you taking this course? What do you hope to learn about during this course? 2. Which of the career options in the field of psychology is most appealing to you? Why? Rubric. Criteria Advanced Proficient Basic Content (8-10 points) (5-7 points) (0-4 points) Student has detailed Student has Student does not knowledge of the adequate knowledge relate back to the course content and of content and course content. used specific adequately relates example/s on their post to course post. content. Relevance (5 points) (3-4 points) (0-2 points) Post is very relevant Post is somewhat Post is not relevant to to the question and relevant to the the question. answers the question question but does completely. not answer the question completely. Mechanics (2 points) (1 point) (0 points) Post has at least 5 Post has at least 3 Post has 1 sentence sentences. No sentences. Few only. Numerous spelling or spelling and spelling and grammatical errors. grammatical errors. grammatical errors. Participation (3 points) (2 points) (0 points) Student responds Student responds Student does not thoughtfully to 2 or thoughtfully to 1 of respond to more of their their classmate’s classmates. classmates’ posts. post. Total __/20 points CONCEPT CHECK: Explanation in Scientific Psychology Instruction. A brief multiple-choice assessment on the chapter will be administered. Total: 20 items (1 point each) A Self-regulated Learning Module 19 CHAPTER 2. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR Learning Outcomes: 1. Discuss the impact of heredity and environment on the development of human behavior. 2. Describe the factors influencing the development of human behavior. 3. Examine the neurological basis of human behavior. 4. Identify the chemicals involved in the nervous and endocrine systems and their influence on behavior. 2.1 Nature and Nurture (Feldman, 2020) Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life. The question is: How can we distinguish between the environmental causes of behavior (i.e., the influence of parents, siblings, family, friends, schooling, nutrition, and all other experiences to which a child is exposed) and hereditary causes of behavior (i.e., those based on an individual’s genetic makeup that influence growth and development throughout life). This question embodies the nature-nurture issue, the issue of the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior. Although the question was first posed as a nature-versus-nurture issue, developmental psychologists today agree that both nature and nurture interact to produce specific developmental patterns and outcomes. Consequently, the question has evolved into: How and to what degree do environment and heredity both produce their effects? No one develops free of environmental influences, or without being affected by his or her inherited genetic makeup. A Self-regulated Learning Module 20 BREAKOUT SESSION: Nature and Nurture Instruction. Share some characteristics that you have that are specifically influenced by nature, and those that are specifically influenced by nurture. After 10 minutes, each small group will share the gist of their group’s discussion on nature and nurture. Rubric. Criteria Advanced Proficient Basic Deficient Presentation (5 points) (4 points) (3 points) (0-2 points) The flow of the The flow of the The flow of the There was no clear presentation presentation presentation flow in the enhanced the quality enhanced the quality somehow enhanced presentation. of the presentation of the presentation the quality of the Nature-nurture was very well. The well. The reporter presentation. not explained at all. reporter did not read did not read and Nature-nurture was and nature-nurture nature-nurture was generally explained. was explained very explained well. well. Content (5 points) (4 points) (3 points) (0-2 points) The content was The content was Shows some Does not seem to thoroughly elaborated by understanding of the understand the elaborated by integrating resources nature-nurture nature-nurture integrating resources that enhanced the debate. debate. that enhanced the richness of the richness of the sharing. Shows a sharing. Shows a full good understanding understanding of the of the nature-nurture nature-nurture debate. debate. Participation (5 points) (4 points) (3 points) (0-2 points) All members shared Most members Some of the There was no their ideas and all shared ideas and all members shared participation from members responded members responded their ideas and the members. to one another. to one another. responded to one another Total __/15 points 2.2 Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth (Feldman, 2020) 2.2.1 Basics of Genetics The one-cell entity established at conception contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information. One member of each pair is from the mother, and the other is from the father. Each chromosome contains thousands of genes—smaller units through which genetic information is transmitted. Either individually or in combination, genes produce person’s unique characteristics. Composed of sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules, genes are the biological equivalent of “software” that programs the future development of all parts of the body’s hardware. Humans have 20,000 to 25,000 different genes. A Self-regulated Learning Module 21 As behavioral geneticists have discovered, genes are also at least partially responsible for a wide variety of personal characteristics, including cognitive abilities, personality traits, and psychological disorders. 2.2.2 Earliest Development When an egg becomes familiarized by the sperm, the resulting one-celled entity, called a zygote, immediately begins to develop. Three days after fertilization, the zygote increases to around 32 cells, and within a week it has grown to 100-150 cells. The first two weeks are known as the germinal period. Two weeks after conception, the developing individual enters the embryonic period, which lasts from week 2 through week 8, and he or she is now called an embryo. As an embryo develops through an intricate, programmed process of cell division, it grows 10,000 times larger by 4 weeks of age and attains a length of about one-fifth of an inch. At this point it has developed a rudimentary beating heart, a brain, an intestinal tract, and a number of other organs. Although all these organs are at a primitive stage of development, they are clearly recognizable. Moreover, by week 8, the embryo is about an inch long, and has discernable arms, legs, and a face. From week 8 and continuing until birth, the developing individual enters the fetal period and is called a fetus. At the start of this period, it begins to respond to touch; it bends its fingers when touched on the hand. At 16 to 18 weeks, its movement become strong enough for the mother to sense them. At the same time, hair may begin to grow on its head, and the facial features become similar to those the child will display at birth. The major organs begin functioning, although the fetus could not be kept alive outside the mother. In addition, a lifetime’s worth of brain neurons are produced—although it is unclear whether the brain is capable of thinking at this early stage. 2.2.3 Genetic Influences on the Fetus The process of fetal growth that we have just described reflects normal development, which occurs in 95 to 98 percent of all pregnancies. Some individuals are less fortunate, for in the remaining 2 to 5 percent of cases, children. Are born with serious birth defects. A major cause of such defects is faulty genes or chromosomes. Here are some of the more common genetic and chromosomal difficulties. Phenylketonuria (PKU). A child born with the inherited disease phenylketonuria cannot produce an enzyme that is required for normal development. This deficiency results in an accumulation of poisons that eventually cause profound intellectual disabilities. The disease is treatable, however, if it is caught early. Most infants today are routinely tested for PKU, and children with the disorder can be placed on a special diet that allows them to develop normally (Waisbren, 2011; Diesen, 2016; Romani et al., 2017). Sickle-cell anemia. A disease that gets its name from the abnormally shaped red blood cells it causes. Children with the disease may have episodes of pain, yellowish eyes, stunted growth, and vision problems (Selove, 2007; Puffer, Schatz, & Roberts, 2010; Wills, 2013). Tay-Sachs disease. Children born with Tay-Sachs disease, usually die by age 3 or 4 because of the body’s inability to break down fat. If both parents carry the genetic defect that produces the fatal illness, their child has a 1 in 4 chance of being born with the disease (McPartland, 2016). A Self-regulated Learning Module 22 Down syndrome. Down syndrome, one of the causes of severe mental disabilities, occurs when the zygote receives an extra chromosome at the moment of conception. Down syndrome is often related to the mother’s age; mothers over 35 and younger than 18 stand a higher risk than other women of having a child with the syndrome (Roizen & Patterson, 2003; Sherman et al., 2007; Nærland et al., 2017). 2.2.4 Prenatal Environmental Influences Genetic factors are not the only causes of difficulties in fetal development. Environmental influences—the nurture part of the nature-nurture equation—also affect the fetus. Some of the more profound consequences are brought about by teratogens, environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect. Among the major prenatal environmental influences on the fetus are the following: Mother’s nutrition. What a mother eats during her pregnancy can have important implications for the health of her baby. Seriously undernourished mothers cannot provide adequate nutrition to a growing fetus, and they are likely to give birth to underweight babies. Poorly nourished babies re also more susceptible to disease (Najman et al., 2004; Everette, 2008). Mother’s illness. Several diseases can have devastating consequences for a developing fetus if they are contracted during the early part of a pregnancy. For example, rubella (German’s measles), syphilis, diabetes, and high blood pressure may each produce a permanent effect on the fetus (Nesheim et al., 2004; Magoni et al., 2005; Nyaradi et al., 2013). Mother’s use of drugs. Mothers who take illegally physically addictive drugs such as cocaine run the risk of giving birth to babies who are similarly addicted. Their newborns suffer painful withdrawal symptoms and sometimes show permanent physical and mental impairment. Even legal drugs taken by a pregnant woman (who may not know she has become pregnant) can have a tragic effect (Schechter, Finkelstein, & Koren, 2005; Singer & Richardson, 2011; Nygaard et al., 2017). Alcohol. Alcohol is extremely dangerous to fetal development. For example, as many as 1.5 out of every 1,000 infants is born with fetal alcohol syndrome disorder (FASD), a condition resulting in below-average intelligence, growth delays, and facial deformities. FASD is now the primary preventable cause of intellectual disability. Even mothers who use small amounts of alcohol during pregnancy place their child at risk (Niccols, 2007; Murthy et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2015). Nicotine. Pregnant mothers who smoke put their children at considerable risk. Smoking while pregnant can lead to miscarriage and infant death. For children who do survive., the negative consequences of mother’s tobacco use can last a lifetime (Shea & Steiner, 2008; Rogers, 2009; Magee et al., 2013). 2.3 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior 2.3.1 The Structure of a Neuron (Furtak, 2020) There are approximately 100 billion neurons in the human brain (Williams & Herrup, 1988). Each neuron has three main components: dendrites, the soma, and the axon. Dendrites are processes that extend outward from the soma, or cell A Self-regulated Learning Module 23 body, of a neuron and typically branch several times. Dendrites receive information from thousands of other neurons and are the main source of input of the neuron. The nucleus, which is located within the soma, contains genetic information, directs protein synthesis, and supplies the energy and the resources the neuron needs to function. The main source of output of the neuron is the axon. The axon is a process that extends far away from the soma and carries an important signal called an action potential to another neuron. The place at which the axon of one neuron comes in close contact to the dendrite of another neuron is a synapse. Typically, the axon of a neuron is covered with an insulating substance called a myelin sheath that allows the signal and communication of one neuron to travel rapidly to another neuron. Basic structure of a neuron. The axon splits many times, so that it can communicate, or synapse, with several other neurons. At the end of the axon is a terminal button, which forms synapses with spines, or protrusions, on the dendrites of neurons. Synapses form between the presynaptic terminal button (neuron sending the signal) and the postsynaptic membrane (neuron receiving the signal). Here we will focus specifically on synapses between the terminal button of an axon and a dendritic spine; however, synapses can also form between the terminal button of an axon and the soma or the axon of another neuron. A very small space called a synaptic gap or a synaptic cleft, approximately 5 nm (nanometers), exists between the presynaptic terminal button and the postsynaptic dendritic spine. To give you a better idea of the size, a dime is 1.35 mm (millimeter) thick. There are 1,350,000 nm in the thickness of a dime. In the presynaptic terminal button, there are synaptic vesicles that package together groups of chemicals called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic terminal button, travel across the synaptic gap, and activate ion channels on the postsynaptic spine by binding to receptor sites. A Self-regulated Learning Module 24 Characteristics of a synapse. 2.3.2 Types of Cells in the Brain (Furtak, 2020) Not all neurons are created equal! There are neurons that help us receive information about the world around us, sensory neurons. There are motor neurons that allow us to initiate movement and behavior, ultimately allowing us to interact with the world around us. Finally, there are interneurons, which process the sensory input from our environment into meaningful representations, plan the appropriate behavioral response, and connect to the motor neurons to execute these behavioral plans. There are three main categories of neurons, each defined by its specific structure. The structures of these three different types of neurons support their unique functions. Unipolar neurons are structured in such a way that is ideal for relaying information forward, so they have one neurite (axon) and no dendrites. They are involved in transmission of physiological information from the body’s periphery such as communicating body temperature through the spinal cord up to the brain. Bipolar neurons are involved in sensory perception such as perception of light in the retina of the eye. They have one axon and one dendrite which help acquire and pass sensory information to various centers in the brain. Finally, multipolar neurons are the most common and they communicate sensory and motor information in the brain. For example, their firing causes muscles in the body to contract. Multipolar neurons have one axon and many dendrites which allows them to communicate with other neurons. One of the most prominent neurons is a pyramidal neuron, which falls under the multipolar category. It gets its name from the triangular or pyramidal shape of its soma (for examples see, Furtak, Moyer, & Brown, 2007). In addition to neurons, there is a second type of cell in the brain called glia cells. Glia cells have several functions, just a few of which we will discuss here. One type of glia cell, called oligodendroglia, forms the myelin sheaths mentioned above (Simons & Trotter, 2007). Oligodendroglia wrap their dendritic processes around the axons of neurons many times to form the myelin sheath. One cell will form the myelin sheath on several axons. Other types of glia cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, digest debris of dead neurons, carry nutritional support from blood vessels to the neurons, and help to regulate the ionic composition of the extracellular fluid. While glial cells play a vital role in neuronal support, they do not participate in the communication between cells in the same fashion as neurons do. 2.3.3 Neuronal Communication (Spielman, Jenkins, & Lovett, 2020) A Self-regulated Learning Module 25 Now that we have learned about the basic structures of the neuron and the role that these structures play in neuronal communication, let’s take a closer look at the signal itself—how it moves through the neuron and then jumps to the next neuron, where the process is repeated. We begin at the neuronal membrane. The neuron exists in a fluid environment—it is surrounded by extracellular fluid and contains intracellular fluid (i.e., cytoplasm). The neuronal membrane keeps these two fluids separate—a critical role because the electrical signal that passes through the neuron depends on the intra- and extracellular fluids being electrically different. This difference in charge across the membrane, called the membrane potential, provides energy for the signal. The electrical charge of the fluids is caused by charged molecules (ions) dissolved in the fluid. The semipermeable nature of the neuronal membrane somewhat restricts the movement of these charged molecules, and, as a result, some of the charged particles tend to become more concentrated either inside or outside the cell. Between signals, the neuron membrane’s potential is held in a state of readiness, called the resting potential. Like a rubber band stretched out and waiting to spring into action, ions line up on either side of the cell membrane, ready to rush across the membrane when the neuron goes active and the membrane opens its gates (i.e., a sodium- potassium pump that allows movement of ions across the membrane). Ions in high-concentration areas are ready to move to low-concentration areas, and positive ions are ready to move to areas with a negative charge. In the resting state, sodium (Na+) is at higher concentrations outside the cell, so it will tend to move into the cell. Potassium (K+), on the other hand, is more concentrated inside the cell, and will tend to move out of the cell. In addition, the inside of the cell is slightly negatively charged compared to the outside. This provides an additional force on sodium, causing it to move into the cell. At resting potential, Na+ (blue pentagons) is more highly concentrated outside the cell in the extracellular fluid (shown in blue), whereas K+ (purple squares) is more highly concentrated near the membrane in the cytoplasm or intracellular fluid. Other molecules, such as chloride ions (yellow circles) and negatively charged proteins (brown squares), help contribute to a positive net charge in the extracellular fluid and a negative net charge in the intracellular fluid. A Self-regulated Learning Module 26 From this resting potential state, the neuron receives a signal and its state changes abruptly. When a neuron receives signals at the dendrites—due to neurotransmitters from an adjacent neuron binding to its receptors—small pores, or gates, open on the neuronal membrane, allowing Na+ ions, propelled by both charge and concentration differences, to move into the cell. With this influx of positive ions, the internal charge of the cell becomes more positive. If that charge reaches a certain level, called the threshold of excitation, the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins. Many additional pores open, causing a massive influx of Na+ ions and a huge positive spike in the membrane potential, the peak action potential. At the peak of the spike, the sodium gates close and the potassium gates open. As positively charged potassium ions leave, the cell quickly begins repolarization. At first, it hyperpolarizes, becoming slightly more negative than the resting potential, and then it levels off, returning to the resting potential. During the action potential, the electrical charge across the membrane changes dramatically. This positive spike constitutes the action potential: the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals. The electrical signal moves down the axon with the impulses jumping in a leapfrog fashion between the Nodes of Ranvier. The Nodes of Ranvier are natural gaps in the myelin sheath. At each point, some of the sodium ions that enter the cell diffuse to the next section of the axon, raising the charge past the threshold of excitation and triggering a new influx of sodium ions. The action potential moves all the way down the axon in this fashion until reaching the terminal buttons. The action potential is an all-or-none phenomenon. In simple terms, this means that an incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation. There is no in- between, and there is no turning off an action potential once it starts. Think of it like sending an email or a text message. You can think about sending it all you want, but the message is not sent until you hit the send button. Furthermore, once you send the message, there is no stopping it. Because it is all or none, the action potential is recreated, or propagated, at its full strength at every point along the axon. Much like the lit fuse of a firecracker, it does not fade away as it travels down the axon. It is this all-or-none property that explains the fact that your brain perceives an injury to a distant body part like your toe as equally painful as one to your nose. As noted earlier, when the action potential arrives at the terminal button, the synaptic vesicles release their neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptors on the dendrites of the adjacent neuron, and the process repeats itself in the new neuron (assuming the signal is sufficiently strong to trigger an action potential). Once the signal is delivered, excess neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft drift away, are broken down into inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed in a process known as reuptake. Reuptake involves the neurotransmitter being pumped back into the neuron that released it, in order to clear the synapse. A Self-regulated Learning Module 27 Clearing the synapse serves both to provide a clear “on” and “off” state between signals and to regulate the production of neurotransmitter (full synaptic vesicles provide signals that no additional neurotransmitters need to be produced). Reuptake involves moving a neurotransmitter from the synapse back into the axon terminal from which it was released. Neuronal communication is often referred to as an electrochemical event. The movement of the action potential down the length of the axon is an electrical event, and movement of the neurotransmitter across the synaptic space represents the chemical portion of the process. However, there are some specialized connections between neurons that are entirely electrical. In such cases, the neurons are said to communicate via an electrical synapse. In these cases, two neurons physically connect to one another via gap junctions, which allows the current from one cell to pass into the next. There are far fewer electrical synapses in the brain, but those that do exist are much faster than the chemical synapses that have been described above (Connors & Long, 2004). A Self-regulated Learning Module 28 2.4 Parts of the Nervous System (Spielman, Jenkins, & Lovett, 2020) The nervous system is divided into two major parts: (a) the Central Nervous System and (b) the Peripheral Nervous System. The nervous system can be divided into two major subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is comprised of the brain and spinal cord; the PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body. In this section, we focus on the peripheral nervous system; later, we look at the brain and spinal cord. A Self-regulated Learning Module 29 GROUP ACTIVITY: Biological Bases of Behavior Instruction. Research on the various components of the nervous system and how they influence behavior. Prepare a 10-minute presentation. Your presentation should contain the following: 1. Where is it found? 2. What does it do? 3. How does its function/s translate to behavior? Rubric. Criteria Advanced Proficient Basic Deficient Presentation (5 points) (4 points) (3 points) (0-2 points) The flow of the The flow of the The flow of the There was no clear presentation presentation presentation flow in the enhanced the quality enhanced the quality somehow enhanced presentation. The of the presentation of the presentation the quality of the topic assigned was very well. The well. The reporter presentation. The not explained at all. reporter did not read did not read and the topic assigned was and the topic topic assigned was generally explained. assigned was explained well. explained very well. Content (12-15 points) (8-11 points) (5-7 points) (0-4 points) The content was The content was Shows some Does not seem to thoroughly elaborated by understanding of the understand the topic elaborated by integrating resources assigned topic. assigned. integrating resources that enhanced the that enhanced the richness of the richness of the presentation. Shows presentation. Shows a good a full understanding understanding of the of the assigned topic. assigned topic. Participation (5 points) (4 points) (3 points) (0-2 points) All members shared Most members Some of the There was no their ideas and shared ideas and members shared participation from contributed to the contributed to the their ideas and the members. overall presentation. overall presentation contributed to the overall presentation. Total __/25 2.4.1 Peripheral Nervous System The peripheral nervous system is made up of thick bundles of axons, called nerves, carrying messages back and forth between the CNS and the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body (i.e., everything outside the CNS). The PNS has two major subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system is associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary. It is involved in the relay of sensory and motor information to and from the CNS; therefore, it consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons. Motor neurons, carrying instructions from the CNS to the muscles, are efferent fibers (efferent means “moving away from”). Sensory neurons, carrying sensory information to the CNS, are afferent fibers (afferent means “moving toward”). A helpful way to remember this is that efferent = exit and afferent = arrive. Each nerve is basically a bundle of neurons forming a two- way superhighway, containing thousands of axons, both efferent and afferent. The autonomic nervous system controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control. It can be further subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic nervous system is involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities; the A Self-regulated Learning Module 30 parasympathetic nervous system is associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations. The two systems have complementary functions, operating in tandem to maintain the body’s homeostasis. Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium, or balance, in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels. The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system have the opposite effects on various systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated when we are faced with stressful or high-arousal situations. The activity of this system was adaptive for our ancestors, increasing their chances of survival. Imagine, for example, that one of our early ancestors, out hunting small game, suddenly disturbs a large bear with her cubs. At that moment, his body undergoes a series of changes—a direct function of sympathetic activation—preparing him to face the threat. His pupils dilate, his heart rate and blood pressure increase, his bladder relaxes, his liver releases glucose, and adrenaline surges into his bloodstream. This constellation of physiological changes, known as the fight or flight response, allows the body access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that it might fight off a threat or run away to safety. While it is clear that such a response would be critical for survival for our ancestors, who lived in a world full of real physical threats, many of the high-arousal situations we face in the modern world are more psychological in nature. For example, think about how you feel when you have to stand up and give a presentation in front of a roomful of people, or right before taking a big test. You are in no real physical danger in those situations, and yet you have evolved to respond to a perceived threat with the fight or flight response. This kind of response is not nearly as adaptive in the modern world; in fact, we suffer negative health consequences when faced constantly with psychological threats that we can neither fight nor flee. Recent research suggests that an increase in susceptibility to heart disease (Chandola, Brunner, & Marmot, 2006) and impaired function of the immune system (Glaser & Kiecolt- A Self-regulated Learning Module 31 Glaser, 2005) are among the many negative consequences of persistent and repeated exposure to stressful situations. Some of this tendency for stress reactivity can be wired by early experiences of trauma. Once the threat has been resolved, the parasympathetic nervous system takes over and returns bodily functions to a relaxed state. Our hunter’s heart rate and blood pressure return to normal, his pupils constrict, he regains control of his bladder, and the liver begins to store glucose in the form of glycogen for future use. These restorative processes are associated with activation of the parasympathetic nervous system. 2.4.2 Central Nervous System The brain is a remarkably complex organ comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia. It is a bilateral, or two-sided, structure that can be separated into distinct lobes. Each lobe is associated with certain types of functions, but, ultimately, all of the areas of the brain interact with one another to provide the foundation for our thoughts and behaviors. In this section, we discuss the overall organization of the brain and the functions associated with different brain areas, beginning with what can be seen as an extension of the brain, the spinal cord. 2.4.2.1 The Spinal Cord It can be said that the spinal cord is what connects the brain to the outside world. Because of it, the brain can act. The spinal cord is like a relay station, but a very smart one. It not only routes messages to and from the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes. The top of the spinal cord is a bundle of nerves that merges with the brain stem, where the basic processes of life are controlled, such as breathing and digestion. In the opposite direction, the spinal cord ends just below the ribs—contrary to what we might expect, it does not extend all the way to the base of the spine. The spinal cord is functionally organized in 30 segments, corresponding with the vertebrae. Each segment is connected to a specific part of the body through the peripheral nervous system. Nerves branch out from the spine at each vertebra. Sensory nerves bring messages in; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs. Messages travel to and from the brain through every segment. Some sensory messages are immediately acted on by the spinal cord, without any input from the brain. Withdrawal from a hot object and the knee jerk are two examples. When a sensory message meets certain parameters, the spinal cord initiates an automatic reflex. The signal passes from the sensory nerve to a simple processing center, which initiates a motor command. Seconds are saved, because messages don’t have to go the brain, be processed, and get sent back. In matters of survival, the spinal reflexes allow the body to react extraordinarily fast. The spinal cord is protected by bony vertebrae and cushioned in cerebrospinal fluid, but injuries still occur. When the spinal cord is damaged in a particular segment, all lower segments are cut off from the brain, causing paralysis. Therefore, the lower on the spine damage occurs, the fewer functions an injured individual will lose. A Self-regulated Learning Module 32 Neuroplasticity Bob Woodruff, a reporter for ABC, suffered a traumatic brain injury after a bomb exploded next to the vehicle he was in while covering a news story in Iraq. As a consequence of these injuries, Woodruff experienced many cognitive deficits including difficulties with memory and language. However, over time and with the aid of intensive amounts of cognitive and speech therapy, Woodruff has shown an incredible recovery of function (Fernandez, 2008, October 16). One of the factors that made this recovery possible was neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity refers to how the nervous system can change and adapt. Neuroplasticity can occur in a variety of ways including personal experiences, developmental processes, or, as in Woodruff's case, in response to some sort of damage or injury that has occurred. Neuroplasticity can involve creation of new synapses, pruning of synapses that are no longer used, changes in glial cells, and even the birth of new neurons. Because of neuroplasticity, our brains are constantly changing and adapting, and while our nervous system is most plastic when we are very young, as Woodruff's case suggests, it is still capable of remarkable changes later in life. 2.4.2.2 The Two Hemispheres The surface of the brain, known as the cerebral cortex, is very uneven, characterized by a distinctive pattern of folds or bumps, known as gyri (singular: gyrus), and grooves, known as sulci (singular: sulcus). These gyri and sulci form important landmarks that allow us to separate the brain into functional centers. The most prominent sulcus, known as the longitudinal fissure, is the deep groove that separates the brain into two halves or hemispheres: the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. The surface of the brain is covered with gyri and sulci. A deep sulcus is called a fissure, such as the longitudinal fissure that divides the brain into left and right hemispheres. (credit: modification of work by Bruce Blaus) There is evidence of specialization of function—referred to as lateralization—in each hemisphere, mainly regarding differences in language functions. The left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body. Decades of research on lateralization of function by Michael Gazzaniga and his colleagues suggest that a variety of functions ranging from cause- and-effect reasoning to self-recognition may follow patterns that suggest some degree of hemispheric dominance (Gazzaniga, 2005). For example, the left hemisphere has been shown to be superior for forming associations in memo
