intro to psychology cheatsheet.pdf

Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Willhelm Wundt Struct​​ur​a​lists -Struc​t​ur​​alist...

Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Willhelm Wundt Struct​​ur​a​lists -Struc​t​ur​​alist -Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener -Known as the “father of experi​​mental psycho​​logy” -Wanted to discover form of mental experi​​ence. Intr​o​sp​​e​ct​ion -Founder of the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in reporting own conscious thoughts and feelings 1879 -Uses the method of intros​​pe​ction to identify the basic elements or “struc​​tures” of psycho​​lo​gical experience William James Brain Organi​zation -Funct​i​on​​alist -Consc​ience and behavior helped people and animals adjust to the enviro​​n​ment. -Father of modern Psychology Research Methods -inde​​p​e​ndent variable - cause -expe​​r​i​m​ental group - exposed to cause -control group - not exposed to cause -depe​​ndent variable - effect (measures how subjects behave) -blind study - subjects don't know if they get drug or placebo -doub​​l​e​-​blind study - subjects & resear​​chers don't know who gets -Cerebral cortex (outer cover) - motor, cognitive, sensory processes drug/p​​l​acebo -corr​​e​l​ation coeffi​​cient - describes strength of relati​​o​nship -Frontal Lobes - coordi​​nating movement in higher level thinking (planning & predicting conseq​​uences of behaviors) - Wernicke's area = language compre​​he​nsion - Broca's area = speech production -Parietal lobes - top of head, behind frontal lobes = touch, hands/feet -Temporal lobes - above parietal, sides of ears = hearing -Occipital lobes - base of skull in back = vision (ocular) By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 1 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Brain Power Psycho​dynamic Approach -all human functi​​oning is based upon the intera​​ction of drives and forces within the person -Exa​m​ple...Nail biting may be caused by an anxiety inducing childhood event. Sleep Disorders -Insomnia - recurring difficulty falling asleep. -Narco​lepsy - sudden and uncont​rol​lable attacks of sleep during waking hours. -Sleep Apnea - stop breathing during sleep which wakes them long enough to breathe. This can occur 100's of times a night Gestalt A motor homunc​ulus represents a map of brain areas dedicated to -theory of mind of the Berlin School of experi​​mental psycho​​logy. motor processing for different anatomical divisions of the body. -Gestalt psychology tries to understand the laws of our ability to acquire and maintain meaningful A sensory homunc​ulus represents a map of brain areas dedicated percep​​tions in an apparently chaotic world. to sensory processing for different anatomical divisions of the body. -Roots in theories by Hume, Goethe, Kant. -Max Werthe​​imer's unique contri​​bution was to insist that the "​​ge​s​t​al​​t" Biological Approach is percep​​tually primary, defining the parts it was composed from, rather than being a secondary -believes us to be as a conseq​​uence of our genetics and physiology quality that emerges from those parts. -only approach that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a biological (physical) point of view -all thoughts, feeling & behavior ultimately have a biological cause By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 2 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Perceptual Set Humanistic Approach (cont) -A predis​pos​ition to perceive things in a certain way. -People basically good, focus on positive aspects of develo​​pment. -We often tend to notice only certain aspects of an object or situation while ignoring other details. Natura​listic Observ​ation -Crying baby girl - weak & scared -Natur​alistic observ​ation is a research method in which people or -Crying baby boy - strong and mad other subjects are observed in their natural setting. -Expect the mail man and hear noises but he is not there. -Psych​olo​gists and other social scientists use natura​listic observ​‐ ation to study specific social or cultural settings that couldn't be Freud - Defense Mechanisms invest​igated in other ways, such as prisons, bars, and hospitals. -reg​r​e​ss​​ion returning to earlier way of behaving (adult throwing temper tantrum) Theories of Emotions -rat​i​o​na​​liz​​at​ion attempts to justify irrational behavior with rational arguments -pro​j​e​ct​​ion attrib​​uting charac​​te​r​i​stics you don't like in yourself to other people -rea​ction format​ion involve doing opposite of what you really want to do -Sub​l​i​ma​​tion channeling of impulses or energies regarded as unacce​​pt​able, especially sexual desires, toward activities regarded as more socially accept​​able, often creative activities -dis​p​l​ac​​ement anger is directed elsewhere not necess​​arily socially acceptably (kick the dog instead of your boss) Humanistic Approach -People aren't merely machines with determined behaviors. -People are motivated by desire for optimal growth and develo​​pment self​-​ac​​tua​​li​z​a​tion. -All have unique desire​​s/​s​k​il​​ls/​​needs. Must be able to express them. By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 3 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Theories of Emotion Theories of Emotion (cont) Jame​s-Lange Theory -A thought must come before any emotion or physio​logical arousal. -Stimu​lating events trigger a physical reaction. In other words, you must first think about your situation before you -You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps can experience an emotion. the stimulus leads to a personal behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and meaning derived from cognition, leading to both arousal and the your breathing deepens. Due to these physio​logical changes your emotion. body prepares for a fearful situation. You then experience fear. -The sound of a gunshot, for example, is interp​reted as something Cann​on-Bard Theory potent​ially dangerous and leads to both physio​logical responses, like -Stimu​lating events trigger feelings and physical reactions that occur a rapid heart rate and trembling, and the subjective experience of at the same time. fear. -You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps -You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. At the same time as these physio​logical your breathing deepens. Upon noticing this arousal you realize that is changes occur you also experience the emotion of fear. comes from the fact that you are walking down a dark alley by Scha​cht​er-​Singer (Two-F​actor) Theory yourself. This behavior is dangerous and therefore you feel the -Two factors are needed to experience emotion. First, enviro​nmental emotion of fear. stimuli elicits a physio​logical response. Second, we cognit​ively appraise this physio​logical activity, and try to give it the correct label. Eye -You are walking down a dark alley late at night.You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. Upon noticing this arousal you realize that is comes from the fact that you are walking down a dark alley by yourself. This behavior is dangerous and therefore you feel the emotion of fear. Lazarus' Cognit​ive​-Me​dia​tional Theory How the Eye Works -two photor​​ec​e​ptors in retina, rods & cones - change physical light energy into neural messages (trans​​du​c​tion) -The rods more numerous, (120 million), & more sensitive than cones. But they're not sensitive to color. By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 4 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ How the Eye Works (cont) Cognitive Approach -The 6 to 7 million cones provide eye's color sensit​​ivity. They're more -The mind actively processes inform​ation from our senses (touch, concen​​trated in the central yellow spot (mac​ula). In the center of that taste etc.). region is the "​​fovea centra​lis ", a 0.3 mm diameter rod-free area with -Between stimulus and response are complex mental processes, very thin, densely packed cones. which can be studied scient​ifi​cally. -Humans can be seen as data processing systems. Parts of the Eye -The workings of a computer and the human mind are alike – they encode and store inform​ation, and they have outputs. -iris - controls pupil size and amount of light -optic nerve - eye signals to brain Jean Piaget -retina - light sensitive inner eye surface -lens - between pupil and retina, focuses light Stages of Cognitive Develo​​pm​ent -Senso​rimotor stage: birth to 2 years Stages of Memory -can't differ​​en​tiate self from enviro​​nment -Preop​era​tional stage: ages 2 to 7 -table world, language, symbols, fantas​​y/​r​e​ality, object perman​​ence, no logical reasoning, lack conser​​va​tion, egocentric -Concrete operat​ional stage: ages 7 to 11 -logic rules, concrete, cause/​​ef​fect, role taking -Formal operat​ional stage: ages 12 and up -logic of science, abstract thinking, metaphors Enco​ding Convert so it can be stored. three ways inform​ation can be encoded: -Visual (picture) -Acoustic (sound) -Semantic (meaning) Stor​age -where it’s stored -how long it lasts for -how much can be stored -what kind of inform​ation is held -short term (STM) -long term (LTM) Retr​ieval -STM is stored and retrieved sequen​tially -LTM is stored and retrieved by associ​ation By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 5 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Noam Chomsky Types of Studies (cont) Video: http://youtu.be/JiTz2i4VHFw -Clinical -separate groups (exper​imental and control) Language develo​pment - children have language acquis​ition device - -exper​imental receives treatment and control does not (placebo) universal built in mental system that steers us toward interp​reting and using language in particular ways. Motivation Young-​​He​l​m​holte Theory Arousal Theory A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and Video: http://youtu.be/9hBfnXACsOI&feature mental activa​​tion. Theory of Color Vision - the sensation of any color can be achieved Instinct Theory all organisms are born with innate biological by the superp​​os​ition of pure red, green and blue colors tendencies to help them survive. All behaviors are driven by instincts (goal-​​di​r​ected and innate patterns of behavior that are not the result Types of Studies of learning or experi​​ence). (babies root) -Corre​lat​ional Drive Reduction Theory phys​io​​lo​​gical need creates an aroused -seeks to figure out if two or more variables are related and in what tension state (drive) motivating fulfil​​lment of the need -- homeos​​tasis way. Theory X type X indivi​​duals are inherently lazy and unhappy with -Is smoking associated with Alzhei​mer's disease? their jobs. Therefore, an author​​it​arian management style is required -Descr​iptive to ensure fulfil​​lment of the indivi​​duals' object​​ives. -do not test specific relati​onships between variables, non-ex​per​‐ Theory Y managers assume employees can be ambitious, self-m​​ot​i​‐ imental vated and exercise self-c​​on​trol. Employees enjoy their mental and -survey physical work duties and for them, work is as natural as play -Natur​alistic -observes and records behavior in its natural setting while interf​ering as little as possible with the subjects or behavior -Quasi​-Ex​per​iment -subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 6 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Drive Edward Thorndike Video: http://youtu.be/fanm--WyQJo Thorndike studied instru​​mental condit​​io​ning, which involves an increase in the probab​​ility of a response occurring as a result of a Drive - disrupts homeos​​tasis positive outcome. This type of learning would come to be called operant condit​​ioning by B.F. Skinner. Instinct - complex behavior, unlearned, same throughout species (baby smiles when eating sweets) Law of Effect behavior changes because of conseq​​uences drive reduction theory - physio​​lo​gical need creates an aroused Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs tension state (drive) motivating fulfil​​lment of the need -- homeos​​tasis Interval Reinfo​​rc​ement Recipr​​ocity Norm reinfo​​rc​e​ments after a response at end of a given time period Video: http://youtu.be/ofxxvc1KPa8 We feel obligated to help those who have helped us. variable interval schedule time between reinfo​​rc​e​ments changes The kin-se​​le​ction hypothesis is one explan​​ation. fixed interval schedule occur on the same day each week ratio schedu​les partial reinfo​​rc​ement schedules (reinf​​or​c​ement delivered based on the number of correct respon​​ses). fixed ratio schedule correct number of responses required remains the same variable ratio schedule number of required responses changes By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 7 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - Aggression & Altruism THERAPY - Biological Medical Approach (cont) Aggr​ess​ion Barbit​​urates (tranq​​ui​l​izer) (opiate) frus​t​ra​​tio​​n-​a​g​gr​​ession hypoth​​esis aggression is always product of Opiates - opium, decreases nervous system, addictive, side effects frustr​​ation and frustr​​ation leads to aggression (wrong, sometimes frustr​​ation= cry) PERSON​​ALITY - Humanistic more testos​​terone = more aggression aggr​e​ssive cues - guns, knives, black clothing = higher levels of aggression among provoked people = weapons effect Altr​​uism Kitty Genovese - raped and murdered 1964 in front of 38 witnesses who did not help (bys​t​ander effect) soci​a​l-​​exc​​hange theory = maximize rewards minimize costs (minimax princi​​ple) Encourage helping behavior: social respon​​si​b​ility norm help people People basically good who need it & reci​p​rocity norm help people who help us. kin selection hypoth​​esis helping family leads to our genes passed on Carl Rogers "Self Theory​​" - person centered true self - talents, thoughts, desires, feelings THERAPY - Biological Medical Approach self concept - what we think we are like Rely on drugs or surgery. Alter the way brain functions ideal self - what we think we would like to be Depression - low serotonin neurot​​ra​n​s​mitter Anti-d​​ep​r​e​ssants (Prozac, Pail, Zoloft) prevent re-uptake of serotonin self actual​​iz​ation - accept who you are (SSRI) result in elevated mood conditions of worth - hinder self actual​​iz​ation Anti-a​​nxiety drugs (Librium, Valium) reduce arousal, depress activity in CNS Self Esteem literature Anti-p​​sy​c​h​otics (Cloza​​pine, Thorazine) treat symptoms of schizo​​ph​r​‐ enia. block operation of neurot​​ra​n​s​mitter dopamine Maslow rejected standard tests and measured self concept through therapy and questi​​on​a​ires. By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 8 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Develo​pment Consci​ousness Consci​ousness is a state of being aware and reflecting on the enviro​nment around us, not simply reacting to it Circadian Rhythm The internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats on each rotation of the Earth roughly every 24 hours. 3 stages of moral develo​​pment Brain 1. Pre-moral a. Obedience v.s. develo​​pment 2. Conven​​t​ional c. good boy, girl-boys and girls are good so they are seen as being a good person. d. law and social order start 3. Post-c​​o​n​v​e​nt​​ional e. Social Contract f. universal ethical principle Functi​onalism -Brainstem (Medulla) - breathing & heartbeat -Funct​i​o​na​​lists focus on the purpose of behavior -An example of functi​​on​alism is describing an apple. An apple is -Reticular formation - arousal, sleep, filters stimuli provides vitamins to keep you healthy. -Cereb​ellum - voluntary movement -How mental experi​​ences were adaptive & functional for people. -Believed consci​​o​u​sness and behavior in general, helped people​​/​a​n​‐ -Limbic System (Hippo HAT) imals adjust to enviro​​n​m​ents. - HIPPOc​​ampus - memory -William James, John Dewey, Harvey Carr, John Angell - Hypoth​​alamus - hunger, thirst, sexual behavior - pituitary gland - hormones - Amygdala - fear, anger - Thalamus - touch, taste, sight, hear By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 9 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Associ​ative Learning Classical Condit​ioning -Subject links together certain events, behavior, stimuli in process of -Pavlov condit​​io​ning. -Learning through associ​ation -Ring the bell dog salivates -Clas​​sical Condit​​io​n​ing Observ​ational Learning -Operant Condit​​io​n​ing -The process of learning by watching the behaviors of others. -The targeted behavior is watched, memorized, and then mimicked. -Obse​​rva​​tional Learning -Also known as shaping and modeling, observ​ational learning is most common in children as they imitate behaviors of adults. Behavi​orist -learned responses to predic​​table patterns of enviro​​n​m​ental stimuli Freud -Pavlov (classical condit​​i​o​ning) -1886 specia​​lized in nervous disorders (talking cure) -Skinner (operant condit​​i​o​ning) -ID - pleasure principle (immediate gratif​​ic​a​tion, impulsive) (devil) -study animals to apply to humans -EGO - reality principle (mediates between id & superego) (self) -SUPEREGO - morality principle (social part, get along with others) Operant Condit​​ioning (angel) -Phobia - cause when you want something you can't have Freud - Psycho​sexual Stages -B.F. Skinner -A method of learning that employs rewards and punish​ments for behavior. -Freud proposed that person​ality develo​pment in childhood takes place during five psycho​sexual stages. -Oral (Birth​-1yr) -Anal (1-3yr) -Phallic (3-6yr) -Latency (6yr-p​ubu​erty) -Genital (puberty adult) -Oedipus Complex -Phallic Stage -children experience an uncons​cious feeling of desire for their opposi​te-sex parent and jealousy and envy toward their same-sex parent. By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 10 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Sensation & Perception Thalamus -Sensation -Functions as a sensory relay station -Bottom up (vision, hearing, smell) receive and relay outside inform​​‐ -see, hear, taste and touch ation to the brain -Perce​ption Amygdala -Top Down brain interprets & organizes that inform​​ation -Sometimes called the aggression center. -If you stimulate the amygdala, you can produce feelings of anger Signal Detection Theory and violence, fear and anxiety. -The ability to notice stimulus varies with psycho​​lo​gical factors -If you damage your amygdala, it can cause a mellowing effect. That including motiva​​tion, past experi​​ence, expect​​ations is why benzod​​ia​z​epine is used to -Assumes that there is “noise” in any system. control anxiety attack. -If we have an old car, we may hear clunks even when the car is -Kluve​r​-Bucy syndrome is where there is a bilateral (both) destru​​‐ operating effect​ively, ction of the amygdala that can cause -The signal is what you are trying to detect. hypero​​rality (put things in your mouth alot), hypers​​ex​u​a​lity, disinh​​‐ ibited behavior (ignore social Limbic System conven​​tions, do dangerous reckless things). -Sometimes called the "​​em​o​t​ional brain" because it plays a primary Hippoc​ampus role in range of emotions, including pain, pleasure, docility, affection and anger. -Its main function is to form long term memories. -The limbic system is made up of the hypoth​​al​amus, thalamus, -Converts short term memory to long term memory. amygdala and hippoc​​ampus. -Thinking back on memories can evoke all kinds of -Picture a HIPPOp​​otamus wearing a HAT. emotions. (HIPPO​​ca​mpus, Hypoth​​al​amus, Amygdala and Thalamus) By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 11 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Hypoth​alamus (hypo - below) Neurons (cont) -Plays a role in regulating the autonomic nervous system (ANS) that -The resting membrane potential of a neuron is about -70 mV relates to emotions. (mV=mi​​ll​i​volt) -Controls the endocrine system, by triggering the release of hormones into your bloods​​tream. Sleep epinep​​hrine (adren​​aline) and norepi​​ne​p​hrine (norad​​re​n​a​line). When awake the brain produces alpha waves which are relatively -Controls the 'flight or fight' vs. 'rest and digest' responses. slow Stage 1 John B Watson breathing slows with irregular, erratic brain waves. alpha waves -Behav​i​orist cease and are replaced with theta waves -Estab​l​ished the psycho​​l​o​gical school of behavi​​orism Stage 2 -Conducted research on animal behavior, child rearing, and advert​​‐ deeper relaxa​​ti​o​n​/o​​cca​​sional bursts of rhythmic waves "​​sleep spindl​​‐ ising es​" and K-comp​​lexes Stage 3 Neurons large slow delta waves. transition to Stage 4 Stage 4 -Afferent neurons are sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses stronger more consistent delta waves. These last 2 stages are from sensory stimuli towards the referred to as slow-wave sleep central nervous system and brain. REM -Efferent neurons are motor neurons that carry neural impulses away Sleep dreams from the central nervous system and towards muscles to cause movement. Dreams Theories -Inter​n​e​urons do not have motor or sensory functions; they just act to pass on inform​​ation. Freud -Glia - neu​ronal glue that holds neurons together and provide -dreams manifest content of latent desires. Disguising the wish nutrients. dreamer avoids anxiety. -Neuro​t​r​an​​smi​​tters are chemical substances made by the neuron Acti​​vation Synthesis Theory specif​​ically to transmit a message. -dreams don’t actually mean anything -Neuro​t​r​an​​smi​​tters are chemical messengers that transmit a signal from a neuron across the synapse to a target cell, which can be a different neuron, myocyte, or gland cell. By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 12 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Dreams Theories (cont) Perception (cont) -merely electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and -Monocular cues (one eye) imagery from our memories -Linear perspe​​cti​ve Thre​​at​-​S​im​​ulation Theory -par​allel lines appear to converge -dreams simulate potential threat​​ening events in order to prepare us -Motion parall​ax for actual life threat​​ening situat​​ions. -​refers to apparent movement of stable objects as we move. Info​​rm​​ation proces​​sing -Perce​ptual sets -way to consol​​idate inform​​ation, sort thru day's events -predi​s​p​os​​itions to perceive one thing and not another will affect the Cont​​in​u​a​l-​​Act​​iv​ation Theory way reality is viewed --During REM sleep, the uncons​​cious part of the brain is busy processing procedural memory. Sensation Phys​​io​l​o​gical Functi​​ons Psycho​​ph​i​sic​s - the relati​onships between physical stimuli and -dreams stimulate the brain which may help build neural connec​​tions mental phenomena Manifest content is the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. Absolute Threshold - the intensity needed for stimulus to be detected Latent content refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. 50% of the time it is presented Just Noticeable Difference (JND) or the difference threshold - Perception minimum stimul​​ation required for detection. -Gestalt (German for "a whole" or "​​fo​r​m​") Psycho​​lo​gists were among Weber's Law - Difference is harder to detect in more intense stimuli. the first to study how the brain Sensory adaptation - prolonged exposure to an unchanging stimulus makes things from fragments of sensat​​ions. causes nerves to fire less and detection dimini​​shes. -Depth percep​​tion -both eyes work together to gather Binocular cues, which use the space between the eyes (retinal disparity) and how much the eyes turn inwards, towards the nose (conve​​rg​ence) to roughly estimate distance. By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 13 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Theories of Intell​igence Sensory Memory Video: http://youtu.be/-hMhpB8ikR8 Weber's Law Video: http://youtu.be/oWpRKJPCI7M Reinfo​rcement implicit (proce​​dural) - being aware of how to do something without Something that feels good is reinfo​​rc​ement (not punish​​ment) consci​​ously know how Positive reinfo​​rc​e​ment - stimulus a) presented explicit (decla​​ra​tive) - being aware of what you know b) desirable = feels good iconic - brief photog​​raphic memory of an image (earn $1.00 for every magazine sold = sell more magazines) negative reinfo​​rc​e​ment - stimulus echoic - brief memory of an auditory stimulus a) REMOVED b) desirable flash​bulb - vivid memories of emotio​​nally charged events = feels good (take aspirin to remove headache) Frustr​​ation Aggression Hypothesis interval schedule - odds of reinfo​​rc​ement go up with passage of time ratio schedule - odds of reinfo​​rc​ement go up depending on how Video: http://youtu.be/oe8PJ8rVV0M many responses are made Frustr​​ation produces a readiness for aggression if triggered variable ratio - number of responses needed vary from one win to the next Yerkes​​-D​odson Law Video: http://youtu.be/8CA6Di3ix0k moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal perfor​​mance By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 14 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Rorschach Sensory Adaptation & Habitu​​ation Video: http://youtu.be/PnKSA6fGp6w Sensory Adapta​​tion - neural receptors reduce sensit​​ivity to cont​‐ inual stimulus (ie - adapt hot/cold water after brief time, eyes adjust dark room (cones 10 min, rods 30), smell own house) Habi​​tu​a​t​ion - decreased response to stimulus after repeated Ink Blot tests. Schizo​​ph​r​enics were found to answer questions about behavior, used to elicit stronger response (alcohol 1st drink vs ink blot cards very differ​​ently than most people. alcoholic taking a drink, favorite food, living near train track) Helping Behaviors sens​​it​i​z​at​​ion repeated intense stimulus increases response to weaker Psycho​​lo​gical Disorders Anxi​ety - dread, fear, terror - Genera​​lized - persistent but don't know source, sweaty palms, shake, nail bite Social Exchange Theory human relati​​on​ships are formed by the use - Panic - sudden onset episodes of a subjective cost-b​​enefit analysis and the comparison of altern​​‐ - OCD - thoughts & behavior atives Mood - depres​​sion, mania or both - Major - 2 weeks of sadness, hopeless, discou​​ra​g​ement Social Respon​​si​b​ility norm obligation to act for the benefit of society - Bipolar at large Diss​o​ci​​ative - fragmented person​​ality - Amnesia - can't remember personal info Byst​ander effect in a crowd, no one helps - Fugue - leaves work, confused, assumes new identity - Identity Disorder (multiple person​​ality) Whorfian Hypothesis Schi​z​op​​hre​nia - halluc​​in​a​t​ions, delusions Video: http://vimeo.com/42744105 a theory in lingui​​stics: one's language determines one's conception of the world The strong version says that language determines thought, and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive catego​​ries, whereas the weak version says only that linguistic categories and usage influence thought and certain kinds of non-li​​ng​u​istic behavior. By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 15 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/  Psychology CLEP Cheat Sheet by ssbrown71 via cheatography.com/131582/cs/26470/ Psycho​​lo​gical Disorders (cont) Psycho​​lo​gical Disorders - Paranoid - believe famous, delusions of grandeur or persec​​ution Video: http://youtu.be/wuhJ-GkRRQc - Disorg​​anized - disorg​​anized speech, inappr​​op​riate behavior Medi​cal - caused by biological reasons (injury, genetics, drugs) - Catatonic - odd motor activity, echopr​​axia, echolalia Soma​t​of​orm - physical symptoms can't be explained medically Psyc​h​oa​​nal​​ytic - childhood conflicts, uncons​​cious, misdir​​ected anger - Conversion - impaired motor/​​se​nsory function - Hypoch​​ondria Cogn​itive - patterns of thinking are abnormal, success because of Pers​o​na​lity - behavior incons​​istent to culture others (luck, generous), fail because of self (stupid, no talent) - Paranoid - suspic​​ious, distru​​stful (not delusi​​onal) - Antisocial - impulsive, no conscience Lear​n​/B​​eha​​vior - problem behavior is the problem, some type of - Borderline - relati​​on​s​h​ip​​/self image problems classical condit​​ioning or reinfo​​rc​ement has occurred for behavior to - Narcis​​sistic - needs admiration continue Erikson's 8 Stages of Develo​​pment 1. Nurturing = trust vs mistrust (baby-1yr) 2. Autonomy vs shame doubt (toddler-2 yr) 3. initiative vs guilt (preschool 3-5 yrs) 4. indust​​rious vs inferior (6-12 yrs) 5. identity vs role confusion (12-18) 6. intimacy vs isolation (18-40) 7. genera​​tivity vs stagnation (40-65) 8. integrity vs despair (65 & up) By ssbrown71 Published 9th February, 2021. Sponsored by CrosswordCheats.com Last updated 9th February, 2021. Learn to solve cryptic crosswords! Page 16 of 16. http://crosswordcheats.com cheatography.com/ssbrown71/