Intro to Psychology Reviewer PDF

MODULE 1 psychology lab, and became the first female president of the APA. Definition of Psychology Twentieth Century Leaders Psycholog...

MODULE 1 psychology lab, and became the first female president of the APA. Definition of Psychology Twentieth Century Leaders Psychology is the scientific study of behaviors and mental processes. It has evolved over the past  John Watson: Founded Behaviorism, century to become a distinct scientific discipline. emphasizing the study of observable behavior and environmental influences. Objectives of Psychology  Sigmund Freud: Developed Psychoanalysis, focusing on unconscious 1. Describe Behavior: What is the nature of conflicts and their influence on behavior this behavior? and personality. 2. Understand Behavior: Why does it occur?  Max Wertheimer: Founded Gestalt 3. Predict Behavior: When will it occur? psychology, emphasizing the perception of 4. Influence Behavior: What conditions whole figures rather than individual affect it? elements.  Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow: Importance of the History of Psychology Founded Humanistic Psychology, emphasizing conscious experiences, Understanding the history of psychology helps psychological growth, and self-direction. recognize its evolution and the foundational theories and debates that have shaped it. Major Perspectives in Psychology Early History of Psychology 1. Biological Perspective: Focuses on genetics and physical bases of behavior.  Greek Philosophers: Aristotle wrote 2. Behavioral Perspective: Emphasizes about sleep, senses, dreams, and memory. environmental influences on behavior.  Rene Descartes: Proposed the separation 3. Cognitive Perspective: Studies mental of mind and brain. processes.  Nature vs. Nurture Debate: Explored 4. Socio-Cultural Perspective: Examines whether human character and knowledge the influence of culture on behavior. are innate or influenced by the environment. Methods of Research  Advances in Physiology: Studied the brain's relationship to behavior, leading to 1. Descriptive Research: Observes and discoveries about brain damage and describes behavior without manipulation. behavior. o Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in natural Key Figures and Theories settings. o Case Studies: In-depth  Wilhelm Wundt: Established psychology investigation of an individual. o Survey: Gathering information as a scientific discipline, focusing on mental reaction times and introspection. through structured questionnaires. o Correlational Studies: Analyzing  Edward Titchener: Founded Structuralism, emphasizing the analysis of the relationship between two conscious thought through introspection. variables.  William James: Developed Functionalism, 2. Experimental Research: Studies with focusing on how behavior helps controlled variables to identify cause-and- individuals adapt to their environment. effect relationships. o Dependent Variable: The  G. Stanley Hall: Established the first psychology lab in the U.S. and published observed and measured factor. the first psychology journal.  Mary Whiton Calkins: Completed a Ph.D. under William James, established a Branches of Psychology  1. Experimental Psychology: Research on  Human Chromosomes: 23 pairs, with the basic topics like sensory processes and 23rd pair determining sex (XX for female, motivation. XY for male). 2. Developmental Psychology: Studies changes over the lifespan. IV. Dominant and Recessive Characteristics 3. Social Psychology: Explores how people are affected by their social environments.  Genotype: Underlying genetic makeup. 4. Personality Psychology: Examines  Phenotype: Displayed traits. individual differences and characteristics.  Dominant Characteristics: Traits 5. Health Psychology: Focuses on expressed with one dominant gene (e.g., psychological factors in health and illness. freckles, dark eyes). 6. Educational Psychology: Studies learning  Recessive Characteristics: Traits processes and instructional methods. expressed only with two identical 7. Industrial/Organizational Psychology: recessive genes (e.g., light hair). Studies the relationship between people and work. V. Prenatal Development 8. Clinical Psychology: Studies, treats, and prevents psychological disorders.  Three Phases: 1. Germinal Period: First two weeks post-conception; zygote undergoes rapid cell division. MODULE 2 2. Embryonic Period: Third to eighth week; major body systems I. Introduction to Developmental Psychology form, and the embryo receives nutrients via the placenta.  Definition: Study of how people change 3. Fetal Period: Eighth week to birth; physically, mentally, and socially body systems grow and mature. throughout the lifespan.  Teratogens: Harmful agents causing  Focus: Influence of biological, abnormal development, e.g., radiation, environmental, social, cultural, and drugs, diseases. behavioral factors on development.  Human Life Span Stages: Eight major VI. Development During Infancy and stages, each characterized by different Childhood physical, cognitive, and social changes.  Newborn Reflexes: II. The Eight Stages of the Lifespan o Rooting Reflex: Turns head toward touch. 1. Prenatal: Conception to Birth o Sucking Reflex: Sucks when lips 2. Infancy: 0 to 2 Years are touched. 3. Early Childhood: 2 to 6 Years o Grasping Reflex: Grasps objects 4. Middle Childhood: 6 to 12 Years placed in palms. 5. Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years  Sensory Perceptual Development: 6. Young Adulthood: 18 to 40 Years o Vision: Least developed sense at 7. Middle Adulthood: 40 to 65 Years birth. 8. Late Adulthood: 65 Years and Above o Preferential Looking Technique: Babies prefer regular faces over III. Genetic Blueprint scrambled ones. o Habituation: Decreased response  Conception: Combination of to repeated stimuli. chromosomes from biological parents forms a unique genetic blueprint. VII. Language Development  Chromosomes: Threadlike structures composed of DNA, which is the basis of  Stages: heredity. 1. Cooing: Repeating vowel sounds around three months.  2. Babbling: Combining consonants Example: A four-month-old who doesn’t with vowels around five months. search for a ball that rolls out of sight lacks 3. One-Word Stage: Using single object permanence. words to express sentences around one year. 2. Pre-operational Stage (2 to 7 years) 4. Two-Word Stage: Combining two o Symbolic thought: Ability to use words to form simple sentences words, images, and symbols to around two years. represent the world. o Egocentrism: Difficulty in seeing VIII. Key Concepts and Examples things from others' perspectives. o Irreversibility: Inability to mentally  Biological Predisposition: Infants have a reverse a sequence of events. natural ability to learn language. o Centration: Focusing on one aspect of  Universal Grammar: Basic a situation while ignoring others. understanding of language principles o Difficulty understanding conservation: present in all children. Equal quantities remain equal despite  Comprehension vs. Production changes in appearance. Vocabulary: Infants understand more words than they can speak. Example: A child may believe that a taller  Environmental Influence on Genetics: glass holds more water than a shorter, Genetic traits like freckles can be wider one. influenced by environmental factors like sun exposure. 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years) o Development of logical thinking about concrete events. o Understanding the principles of MODULE 3 conservation and reversibility. o Less egocentric and can consider Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development multiple aspects of a situation. Overview: Example: Understanding that the number of coins remains the same despite changes  Jean Piaget proposed that children progress in arrangement. through four distinct cognitive stages.  Children actively make sense of their 4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and environment rather than passively absorbing up) information. o Ability to think logically about abstract  Each new stage represents a fundamental concepts and hypothetical situations. shift in thinking and understanding the world. o More systematic and logical problem- solving abilities. o Understanding abstract concepts such as trust and friendship. Stages of Cognitive Development: Example: Adolescents can describe 1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years) friendship in terms of mutual trust and o Knowledge about the world is loyalty. acquired through actions and sensory experiences. o Develops basic motor skills and Freud's Psychosexual Development understanding of cause and effect. o Object permanence: Understanding Overview: that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.  Sigmund Freud proposed that personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages.   Each stage focuses on different erogenous 1. Infancy (0-1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust zones and conflicts. o Basic strength: Hope  The foundation of adult personality is o Core pathology: Withdrawal established in early childhood. 2. Early Childhood (2-3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Stages of Psychosexual Development: o Basic strength: Will o Core pathology: Compulsion 1. Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months) 3. Play Age (4-6 years): Initiative vs. Guilt o Focus on oral activities (sucking, o Basic strength: Purpose chewing). o Core pathology: Inhibition o Oral fixation can lead to issues like 4. School Age (7-11 years): Industry vs. smoking or excessive eating. Inferiority o Basic strength: Competence Oral Character Types: Oral Receptive o Core pathology: Inertia (dependent) and Oral Aggressive 5. Adolescence (12-18 years): Identity vs. (argumentative). Confusion o Basic strength: Fidelity 2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years) o Core pathology: Role Repudiation o Focus on toilet training and control 6. Early Adulthood (19-29 years): over bodily functions. Intimacy vs. Isolation o Anal fixation can lead to traits like o Basic strength: Love orderliness or messiness. o Core pathology: Exclusivity 7. Middle Age (30-64 years): Generativity Anal Character Types: Anal Retentive vs. Stagnation (compulsive) and Anal Expulsive (messy). o Basic strength: Care o Core pathology: Rejectivity 3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) 8. Old Age (65 years onward): Integrity vs. o Focus on the genitals and Despair identification with same-sex parent. o Basic strength: Wisdom o Development of Oedipus and Electra o Core pathology: Disdain complexes. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Complexes: Oedipus (boys) and Electra (girls). Overview: 4. Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)  Lawrence Kohlberg proposed three levels of o Sexual desires are repressed, and moral reasoning: pre-conventional, children focus on developing skills and conventional, and post-conventional. knowledge.  Each level is based on the degree of 5. Genital Stage (puberty onward) conformity to societal standards. o Focus on mature sexual relationships and establishing a balance between various life areas. Levels and Stages of Moral Reasoning: Erikson's Psychosocial Development 1. Pre-conventional Level Overview: o Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation  Erik Erikson proposed eight stages of o Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange psychosocial development across the lifespan.  Each stage involves a conflict that must be Focus: Avoiding punishment and resolved for healthy development. maximizing personal gain. Stages of Psychosocial Development: 2. Conventional Level  o Stage 3: Good Interpersonal  Definition: Actively and skillfully Relationships conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, o Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order synthesizing, and evaluating information. Focus: Conforming to social rules and REASONING obligations.  Deductive Reasoning: General to specific 3. Post-conventional Level (Theory → Hypothesis → Observation → o Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Confirmation). Rights  Inductive Reasoning: Specific to general o Stage 6: Universal Principles (Observation → Hypothesis → Pattern → Theory). Focus: Understanding universal ethical principles and personal moral codes. THE NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE Example of Heinz Dilemma:  Fluid Intelligence: Ability to perceive relationships independent of practice or  The reasoning used to justify whether Heinz instruction. should steal a drug to save his wife reflects  Crystallized Intelligence: Knowledge from the individual's level of moral development. prior learning and past experiences. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE MODULE 4  Alfred Binet: General capacity encompassing all mental abilities. WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?  Charles Spearman: General intelligence factor (g) and specific abilities (s).  Definition: Mental capacity to learn from  Louis Thurstone: Seven primary abilities experiences, adapt to new situations, (Verbal Comprehension, Word Fluency, understand abstract concepts, and use Numerical Ability, Spatial Visualization, knowledge to manipulate the environment. Memory, Perceptual Speed, Inductive  Skills: Problem-solving, critical thinking, Reasoning). learning quickly, understanding complex ideas.  Howard Gardner: Multiple intelligences (e.g., Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Musical, INTELLIGENCE AS DEFINED BY Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, NOTABLE THINKERS Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, Existential).  Robert Sternberg: Triarchic theory  Socrates: Humility and lifelong learning. (Componential, Creative, Contextual  David Wechsler: Broad, encompassing Intelligence). effective, rational, and goal-directed behavior. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAJOR COMPONENTS OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS INTELLIGENCE  Alfred Binet: Identifying students needing  Concepts: Categorizing objects or ideas based special help; concept of mental age. on shared properties.  Lewis Terman: Stanford-Binet test and o Formal Concepts: Defined by specific Intelligence Quotient (IQ). rules (e.g., states of matter: solid,  World War I: Army Alpha (written) and Army liquid, gas). Beta (oral) tests. o Natural Concepts: Formed from  David Wechsler: Wechsler Adult Intelligence everyday experiences (e.g., fruit Scale (WAIS) with verbal and performance prototypes like apples and grapes). scores. CRITICAL THINKING MODULE 5 Definition of Personality o Sanguinary: Blood; cheerful, active.  Origin: Latin word "persona" (theatrical o Phlegmatic: Phlegm; calm, mask). inactive.  Psychological View: Patterns of behavior 4. Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic and thought determining individual Theory adjustment to the environment. o Id: Unconscious, pleasure principle.  Components: Physical, emotional, mental, o Ego: Reality principle, conscious moral, and social characteristics. and unconscious. o Superego: Conscience, moral Shaping of Personality standards. o Interaction: Id's desires vs. 1. Biological Factors superego's morals mediated by ego. o Genes determine physical attributes 5. Carl Jung's Theory (phenotype). o Personal Unconscious: o Physical appearance and abilities Forgotten/repressed experiences. influence personality. o Collective Unconscious: Shared o Health impacts confidence and ancestral knowledge. social interaction. o Archetypes: Universal symbols 2. Socio-Cultural Experiences (Persona, Shadow, Anima/Animus). o Society and culture influence o Extroversion vs. Introversion: values, norms, and practices. Sociability vs. reserve. o Examples: Cultural attitudes o Four Functions: Thinking, feeling, towards suicide differ (e.g., sensation, intuition. Christian vs. non-Christian 6. Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory regions). o Cardinal Traits: Dominant, rare o Studies on identical twins show (e.g., Machiavellian). distinct personalities despite o Central Traits: Basic identical genetics. characteristics (e.g., honest). o Secondary Traits: Situational (e.g., Theoretical Approaches to Personality anxious in public speaking). 7. The Big Five Personality Traits 1. Ernst Kretschmer's Types (OCEAN) o Asthenic: Slim, tall; inhibited, o Openness: Imagination, curiosity. intellectual. o Conscientiousness: Organization, o Athletic: Muscular, medium height; mindfulness. energetic, bold. o Extraversion: Sociability, o Pyknic: Round, short; sociable, assertiveness. relaxed. o Agreeableness: Trust, kindness. o Dysplastic: Unproportionate; o Neuroticism: Emotional instability. underdeveloped personality. 2. William Sheldon's Types Consistency and Changes in Personality o Ectomorph: Slim; introverted, sensitive.  Dynamic nature: Develops and changes o Mesomorph: Muscular; confident, over time, especially during adolescence. adventurous.  Personality becomes stable in adulthood. o Endomorph: Round; relaxed, extroverted. Personality Assessment Methods 3. Hippocrates and Galen's Body Chemistry Theory 1. Observational Techniques o Choleric: Yellow bile; irritable, o Naturalistic Observation: restless. Observing in natural settings. o Melancholic: Black bile; sad, o Experimentation: Controlled depressed. settings to observe reactions.  o Interview: Structured questions to o Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially does gauge personality. not trigger a response (e.g., sound of 2. Personality Inventories a fan without feeling a breeze). o 16 Personality Factor (16PF): o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously Measures 16 traits. neutral, now triggers a response (e.g., o Minnesota Multiphasic fear of dogs after a bite). Personality Inventory (MMPI): o Conditioned Response (CR): Learned Diagnoses personality disturbances. response to the CS (e.g., fear felt after o California Psychological seeing a dog due to a previous bite). Inventory (CPI): Measures normal  Pavlov’s Dog Experiment: traits. o US (Meat): Causes salivation (UR). 3. Projective Techniques o NS (Bell): Initially no reaction. o Rorschach Test: Interpretation of o CS (Bell after pairing with US): Causes inkblots. salivation (CR). o Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Creating stories based on Operant Conditioning ambiguous pictures.  Definition: Learning through rewards and punishments (B.F. Skinner).  Components: MODULE 6 o Positive Reinforcement: Adding favorable events/outcomes to  Learning and Memory: Both are neuroplastic strengthen behavior (e.g., bonus for processes that involve changes in the brain's good work). o Negative Reinforcement: Removing functioning in response to experience. o Learning: How experiences change unfavorable events/outcomes to the brain. strengthen behavior (e.g., stopping a o Memory: How these changes are child’s scream with a treat). o Positive Punishment: Adding stored and reactivated. o Importance: Essential for making unfavorable events/outcomes to sense of the world; without them, weaken behavior (e.g., spanking for every moment would be as if waking misbehavior). o Negative Punishment: Removing from a lifelong sleep. favorable events/outcomes to weaken behavior (e.g., taking away What is Learning? video games for misbehavior).  Definition: A change in behavior resulting Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory) from experience. o Categories: Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and  Proponent: Albert Bandura. observational learning.  Core Concepts: o Learning through observation. o Internal mental states are essential. Classical Conditioning o Learning doesn’t always result in behavior change.  Discovery: By Ivan P. Pavlov, observed in  Key Factors for Success: dogs' digestion. o Attention: Must be focused on the  Key Concepts: model. o Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A o Retention: Ability to store and trigger that leads to an automatic retrieve information. response (e.g., cold breeze causing o Reproduction: Performing the shivering). observed behavior. o Unconditioned Response (UR): An o Motivation: Reinforcement and automatic response to the US (e.g., punishment influence motivation. mouth watering from the smell of favorite food). What is Memory?   Definition: Psychological processes of o Encoding Failure: Information never acquiring, storing, retaining, and retrieving enters long-term memory. information. o Motivated Forgetting: Active effort to  Major Processes: forget (e.g., suppression, repression). o Encoding: Initial processing of sensory information into a storable form. o Consolidation: Stabilizing and organizing encoded information for long-term storage. o Storage: Keeping information for later MODULE 7 access. o Retrieval: Accessing stored Motivation describes why a person engages in information when needed. specific behaviors, acting as the driving force behind human actions. It initiates, directs, and Three Types of Memory sustains goal-directed behaviors. Motivation encompasses biological, emotional, social, and 1. Sensory Memory: Brief retention of cognitive forces that activate behavior. sensory information. o Echoic Memory: Auditory memory (3- Components of Motivation 4 seconds). o Iconic Memory: Visual memory (1/4 1. Activation: Decision to initiate a behavior (e.g., to 1/2 second). enrolling in a course). o Haptic Memory: Tactile memory 2. Persistence: Continued effort toward a goal (approximately 2 seconds). despite obstacles (e.g., attending class despite 2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Capacity to being tired). store a small amount of information briefly 3. Intensity: Concentration and vigor in pursuing (20-30 seconds). a goal (e.g., studying regularly and engaging in o Rehearsal Strategies: Saying class). information aloud or mentally repeating it to extend retention. Types of Motivation 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Long- lasting storage of information.  Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external o Explicit Memory (Declarative): rewards (e.g., money, praise).  Episodic Memory: Life events  Intrinsic Motivation: Arises from within, and experiences. driven by inherent satisfaction (e.g.,  Semantic Memory: Factual enjoyment of the activity). and conceptual knowledge. o Implicit Memory (Non-declarative): Theories of Motivation  Procedural Memory: Memory of body movements and how 1. Instinct Motivation Theory: Behaviors are to use objects. driven by instincts, inborn patterns of behavior (e.g., fear, love). Forgetting 2. Drive Motivation Theory: Motivation comes from the desire to reduce internal tension  Definition: Loss or change in previously stored (homeostasis). information. 3. Arousal Motivation Theory: Actions are taken  Explanations: to maintain optimal arousal levels. o Decay Theory: Memory traces fade 4. Humanistic Motivation Theory: Actions are over time without rehearsal. driven by the desire to meet needs (Maslow's o Interference: Similar memories Hierarchy of Needs). compete and interfere. 5. Incentive Motivation Theory: Behavior is  Proactive Interference: Old motivated by rewards and punishments. memories hinder new ones. 6. Expectancy Motivation Theory: Motivation  Retroactive Interference: comes from the expectation of positive New memories hinder old outcomes. ones. Emotion in Psychology Emotion is a reaction to events or situations, influencing daily decisions and activities. Emotions have three key elements: 1. Subjective Experience: Conscious awareness and interpretation of emotional states. 2. Physiological Response: Bodily changes accompanying emotions (e.g., heart rate changes). 3. Behavioral Response: Observable behaviors and actions resulting from emotions. Theories of Emotion 1. Watson’s Theory of Emotion: Emotions are learned through conditioning (e.g., fear, anger, love in infants). 2. James-Lange Theory of Emotion: Emotions arise from physiological reactions to events. 3. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: Emotions and physiological reactions occur simultaneously. 4. Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion: Emotions result from physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation. Example of Theories of Emotion in Practice Scenario: Giselle encounters a shadowy figure while walking home, leading to fear and physical reactions. 1. Watson’s Theory: Giselle runs and her heart pounds due to conditioned fear responses. 2. James-Lange Theory: Giselle feels afraid because she runs and her heart pounds. 3. Cannon-Bard Theory: Giselle's fear and physical reactions occur simultaneously. 4. Schachter-Singer Theory: Giselle experiences physiological arousal (pounding heart) and cognitively interprets it as fear.