Psychology Overview: Encoding, Memory, and More

Information Encoding

• Information can be encoded in three ways: visual (picture), acoustic (sound), and semantic (meaning).

Storage

• Short-term memory (STM): stores information sequentially, limited capacity, and lasts seconds to minutes.
• Long-term memory (LTM): stores information through association, large capacity, and can last a lifetime.

Retrieval

• STM is retrieved sequentially.
• LTM is retrieved by association.

Language Development

• Noam Chomsky proposed the language acquisition device: a universal, built-in mental system that guides language interpretation and usage.

Young-Helmholtz Theory of Color Vision

• The sensation of any color can be achieved by superimposing pure red, green, and blue colors.

Motivation

• Arousal Theory: suggests people seek an optimal level of alertness and physical/mental activation.
• Instinct Theory: proposes all organisms have innate biological tendencies for survival.

Aggression & Altruism

• Frustration-aggression hypothesis: suggests aggression stems from frustration, but this hypothesis is incomplete.
• Testosterone levels: higher levels are associated with greater aggression.
• Aggressive cues: weapons, black clothing, can increase aggression in provoked individuals.
• Bystander effect: individuals are less likely to help when more people are present.
• Social exchange theory: maximizing rewards and minimizing costs influences helping behavior.
• Social responsibility norm: encourages aiding those in need.
• Reciprocity norm: encourages helping those who have helped you.
• Kin selection hypothesis: helping family increases the chance of passing on your genes.

Therapy: Biological Medical Approach

• Relies on drugs and surgery to alter brain function.
• Depression is associated with low serotonin levels.
• Antidepressants (SSRIs): prevent serotonin re-uptake leading to elevated moods.
• Anti-anxiety drugs: reduce arousal and depress central nervous system (CNS) activity.
• Antipsychotics: treat schizophrenia symptoms by blocking dopamine neurotransmitter function.

Personality - Humanistic

• Carl Rogers' "Self Theory": believes people are inherently good.
• True self: encompasses talents, thoughts, desires, and feelings.
• Self-concept: our perception of who we are.
• Ideal self: what we aspire to be.
• Self-actualization: accepting and fulfilling one's potential.
• Conditions of worth: external expectations that can hinder self-actualization.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

• Pre-moral: focuses on obedience and punishment.
• Conventional: focuses on societal rules and expectations.
• Post-conventional: focuses on ethical principles and individual rights.

Consciousness

• A state of awareness and reflection rather than simply reacting to the environment.

Circadian Rhythm

• An internal cycle regulating sleep-wake patterns that roughly corresponds to the Earth's 24-hour rotation.

Brain

• Observational Learning (Shaping & Modeling): most common in children as they imitate adult behaviors.
• Limbic system: known as the "emotional brain" as it plays a role in emotions such as pain, pleasure, and anger.
  • Hippocampus: forms long-term memories.
  • Amygdala: processes emotions and fear.
  • Hypothalamus: regulates autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and "flight or fight" responses.
  • Thalamus: relays sensory information to the cortex.
  • Kluver-Bucy syndrome: damage to the amygdala causing hyperorality, hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior.

Neurons

• Resting membrane potential of a neuron is about -70 mV.

Sleep

• Brain produces alpha waves when awake, which are relatively slower than other brain waves.

Behaviorism

• Focuses on learned responses to environmental stimuli.
• Pavlov (classical conditioning): associating stimuli with a response.
• Skinner (operant conditioning): learning through rewards and punishments.
• Studies animal behavior to apply findings to humans.

Freud

• Focused on nervous disorders, and developed the "talking cure."
• ID: pleasure principle, driven by immediate gratification (the "devil").
• EGO: reality principle, mediates between ID and superego (the "self").
• SUPEREGO: morality principle, focuses on social rules and expectations (the "angel").
• Phobia: arises from seeking unattainable desires.

Freud: Psychosexual Stages

• Believed personality develops in five stages throughout childhood.

Benzod​​ia​z​epine

• Used to control anxiety attacks.

Hippoc​ampus

• Converts short-term memories to long-term memories.

Amygdala

• Plays a role in processing emotions and fear.