PYS Textbook Notes CH 1, CH 2, CH 3, CH 4.pdf

CH 1.2 About halfway through Pavlov Watson Skinner Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov ○ Studied a form of learning behavior called conditioned reflex Animal or human produced a reflex response to a stimulus and over time was conditioned to produce the...

CH 1.2 About halfway through Pavlov Watson Skinner Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov ○ Studied a form of learning behavior called conditioned reflex Animal or human produced a reflex response to a stimulus and over time was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus Pavlov worked with the salivation in response to food. Salivation reflex could be elicited using a second stimulus such as a sound taht was presented in association with the initial food stimulus several times. Once the response to the second stimulus was learned the food could be omitted John B. Watson ○ Focus on directly observable behavior and try to bring it under control ○ He was a major proponent of shifting the focus of pysch from the mind to behavior This approach of observing and controlling behavior became known as behaviorism Learned behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities Dominated experimental pysch Used in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy B. F. Skinner ○ Behaviorist ○ Concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences ○ Spoke of reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior ○ Developed a chamber that allowed study of the principles of modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment ○ Operant conditioning chamber (Skinner Box) Chamber that isolates subject from the external environment and has a behavior indicator When the animal pushes the button or lever, the box delivers a positive reinforcement or a punishment Maslow Rogers and Humanism Humanism is a perspective within pysch that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans Abraham Maslow ○ Proposed a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior ○ Stated that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met, higher level needs would begin to motivate behavior ○ Highest level needs relate to self-actualization, a process by which we achieve our full potential Carl Rogers  ○ Used a therapeutic technique known as client centered therapy to help clients deal with issues that resulted in their seeking of psychotherapy ○ Client centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role unlike psychoanalytic where the therapist plays an important role ○ He believed therapist needed to display three features to maximize effectiveness Unconditional positive regard Genuineness Empathy Cognitive revolution Revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry Noam Chomsky was very influential in this movement Multicultural and Cross-Country Psychology Certain populations have been over-studied and results have been applied to other populations WEIRD societies have been overstudied and wrongly applied to non-WEIRD societies ○ Western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic People vary depending on culture and environment Multicultural psychologists develop theories and conduct research with diverse populations, typically in one country Cross-Cultural psychologists compare populations across countries, people from US compared to China Francis Cecil Sumner first African American to recieve PHD in pysch in US Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman awarded the PHD in pysch 1.3 Contemporary Psychology APA: American Psychological Association ○ 54 divisions ○ G. Stanley Hall was the first President of APA APS: Association for Psychological Science ○ Founded in 1988 ○ Seeks to advance the scientific orientation of psych Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology Biopsychology explores how our biology influences our behavior ○ Research interests: sensory and motor systems, sleep, drug use and abuse, ingestive behavior, etc Evolutionary psychology studies the ultimate biological causes of behavior ○ To be subject to evolution by natural selection, a behavior must have a significant genetic cause ○ These types of studies are not strong evidence that a behavior is adaptive since they lack info that it is in some part genetic and not entirely cultural Sensation and Perception  Scientists interested in both physiological aspects of sensory systems as well as in the psych experience of sensory information work within the area of sensation and perception Cognitive Psych Cognitive psych is the area that focuses on studying cognitions or thoughts and their relationship to our experiences and actions Developmental Psych The scientific study of development across a lifespan Jean Piaget demonstrated that young children do not demonstrate object permanence ○ Refers to the understanding that physical things continue to exist even if we cant see it. Increasing interest in extending research into changes that occur later in life Personality Psychology Focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique Rather than explaining how personality arises, research is focused on identifying personality traits, measuring them, and determining how they interact in a particular context to determine how a person will behave in a situation Personality traits are relatively consistent patterns of thought and behavior ○ The Big Five or the Five Factor model Conscientiousness Agreeableness Neuroticism Openness Extraversion Social Psych Focuses on how we interact with and relate to others Milgram did a study that nearly ⅔ of his participants were willing to deliver what they thought were lethal doses to another person simply because they were told to do so by an authority figure research confederates, those who pretend to be participants in a research study who are actually working for the researcher and have clear, specific directions on how to behave during the research study Industrial-Organizational Psychology (I-O psych) applies psych theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings Businesses often seek aid of I-O to make best hiring decisions, and environments that result in high levels of productivity and efficiency Health psych Focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological and sociocultural factors Known as the biopsychosocial model Sport and Exercise Study the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional wellbeing Clinical Focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psych disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior Counseling psychology is similar that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy Forensic Deals with questions of psychology as they arise in context of justice system ○ Assess a persons competency to stand trial, mind of a defendant, etc 1.4 Careers in Psychology Individuals earning a PHD must complete a dissertation ○ A long research paper describing research that was conducted as a part of the candidates doctoral training ○ People who get the PHD must contribute to academia in some way shape or form People who wish to be practicing clinical psychologists can earn a PsyD ○ PsyD is a doctor of psychology degree In most states people wishing to practice as a licensed clinical or counseling psychologist may complete postdoctoral work under the supervision of a licensed psychologist Psychiatrists have a MD while clinical psychologists have a PhD or PsyD CH 2: Psychological Research 2.1 Why is Research Important Scientific knowledge is empirical: it is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed over and over. Behavior is observable, the mind is not When someone makes a claim: expertise of the person, what might they gain, is the claim justified given the evidence, what do other researchers think of the claim? Facts- observable realities  Opinions- personal judgements, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate Important Researchers: ○ Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)- first woman to earn a PhD in psych. Research focused on animal behavior and cognition ○ Mary Whiton Calkins- first gen american psych who opposed the behaviorist movement, conducted research into memory, and established one of the earliest experimental psych labs in US ○ Francis Sumner (1895-1954)- first African american to get PhD in psych in 1920/ Focused on issues related to psychoanalysis. Also had research interests in racial bias and educational justice. One of the founders of Howard University’s department of psych. Known as “Father of Black Psych” ○ Inez Beverly Prosser- first african american woman to receive PhD in psych, research highlighted issues related to education in segregated vs integrated schools, work was influential in the Brown v. Board of Education case that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional ○ APA founded in 1892, Mary Whiton Calkins in 1905 was the first female president elected to the APA Process of Scientific Research Scientific method ○ Ideas in the form of theories and hypotheses are tested against the real world in the form of empirical observations, and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against real world, so on. ○ Scientific process is circular ○ Reasoning in circle : deductive and inductive ○ Deductive reasoning: ideas are tested in the real world ○ Inductive reasoning: real world observations lead to new ideas ○ Inductive reasoning is closely associated with case studies whereas deductive reasoning has great emphasis on experimental research ○ Theory- well developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena Researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory ○ Hypothesis- testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct Often worded as an if-then statement Falsifiable- capable of being shown to be incorrect Hypotheses are falsifiable 2.2 Approaches to Research  Correlational data can find a relationship between two variables, but the only way a researcher can claim that the relationship between the variables is cause and effect is to perform an experiment Clinical or Case studies: ○ In Observational research scientists are conducting clinical or case studies- when they focus on one person or a few individuals ○ Able to gain a lot of insight into these cases ○ Allows researcher to have a deep understanding of what is being studied ○ Downside: usually these cases are interesting to researchers because they have a rare characteristic, therefore, the findings cannot be generalized ○ Generalizing: refers to the ability to apply findings to larger segments of society Naturalistic observation: ○ Naturalistic observation- observing behavior in its natural setting ○ Critical that the observer be inconspicuous ○ Validity- accuracy ○ Naturalistic observation has the benefit of validity ○ Ability to generalize findings of research is enhanced because of validity ○ Downside: often difficult to set up and control ○ Observer bias: observers may unconsciously skew their observations to fit research goals ○ Researchers often compare observations of the same event by multiple observers to test inter-rater reliability ○ Inter-rater reliability- a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers Surveys ○ Survey- list of questions to be answered by research participants ○ Easy to collect data from a large number of people ○ Sample- a subset of individuals selected from a population ○ Population- the overall group of individuals that researchers are interested in ○ Study the sample and generalize their findings to the population ○ Researchers will begin the generalization process by calculating varios measures of central tendency from the data These measures provide an overall summary of what a typical response looks like Three measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode Mode: most frequently occurring response Median: lies at the middle of a given data set Mean: arithmetic average of all data points ○ Not able to collect the same depth of info on each person that would be collected in a case study ○ People dont always give accurate responses Archival research ○ Use existing records to answer various research questions ○ Relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for patterns or relationships  ○ Never directly interacts with research participants ○ Researchers have no control over what info was originally collected ○ No guarantee of consistency between the records from one source to another Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research ○ When we test the same group of people repeatedly over an extended period of time, we are conducting longitudinal research ○ Longitudinal research- research design in which data gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time Require time investment by the researcher & participants Results will not be known for a considerable period of time Financial investment Participants also must be willing to continue their participation for an extended period of time Attrition rates- reduction in number of participants due to dropouts Attrition rates are high in longitudinal studies and increase over the course of a project ○ Cross-sectional research- researchers compare multiple segments of the population at the same time. Limited by differences that exist between the different generations that have nothing to do with age, but reflect the social and cultural experiences of diff generations that make them diff from one another 2.3 Analyzing Findings Correlation research ○ Correlation- there is a relationships between two or more variables but this relationship doesnt necessarily imply cause and effect Simply means when one variable changes, so does the other Correlation coefficient- a number between -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables Usually represented by the letter r The closer the number is to 1 (neg or pos) the more strongly related the variables are Closer the # is to 0 the weaker the relationship If variables are not related at all the correlation coefficient is ) Positive correlation- the variables move in the same direction (as one increases so does the other, vice versa) Negative correlation- the variables move in opposite direction Correlation does not indicate causation ○ Correlation is limited because it doesnt say much about cause and effect ○ Sometimes variables are correlated bc of cause/effect but it could also be because of a confounding variable- some other factor Illusory Correlations: ○ Illusory correlation: false correlations ○ Occur when people believe relationships exist between two things when no relationship exists  ○ Confirmation bias- having a hunch about how something works and then looking for evidence to support it or ignoring evidence that would tell us our hunch was false Causality: Conducting experiments and using the data ○ Only way to establish cause effect relationship is to conduct a scientific experiment ○ Experimental Hypothesis: To find out if real world data supports our hypothesis we have to conduct an experiment ○ Designing an Experiment: Experimental group- gets the experimental manipulation Experimental manipulation- the treatment or variable being tested Control group- does not receive the experimental manipulation To define how we measure our variables we use Operational definition- precise description of our variables Have to establish how we will run our experiment Experimenter bias- the possibility that a researchers expectations might skew the results of the study Single blind study- one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which=ch are in each group Double blind study- both researchers and participants are blind to group assignments Prevents both researcher and the participant expectations Placebo effect- peoples expectations or beliefs influence or determined their experience in a given situation ○ Independent and Dependent Variables: Independent variable- manipulated or controlled by the experimenter Dependent variable- what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had Dependent variable depends on the independent variable ○ Selecting and Assigning Experimental Participants: Participants- subjects of psychological research Random sample- subset of a larger population in which every member of population has an equal chance to be selected Random assignment- all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group (control or experimental) ○ Issues to Consider: Ethical constraints ○ Interpreting Experimental Findings: Once data is collected, a statistical analysis is conducted to find out if there are any meaningful differences between groups Statistical analysis- determines how likely it is that any difference found is due to chance (and thus not meaningful)  Psych want to limit the chances of making ‘false positive’ claims to 5% or less ○ Reporting research Scientific journals publish peer reviewed journal articles aimed at an audience of professionals and scholars Peer reviewed journal article is read by several other scientists with expertise in the subject matter Provide feedback Journal editor will combine all feedback and determine whether the article will be published in its current state, published with revisions, or not accepted for publication Peer review ensures that the research is describes well enough to allow others to replicate it, meaning they can repeat the experiment using diff samples to determine reliability ○ Reliability and validity: Reliability- refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result Inter-rater reliability- the degree to which two or more diff observers agree on what has been observed Internal consistency- the degree to which diff items on a survey that measure the same thing correlate with each other Test-retest reliability- the degree to which outcomes of a particular measure remain consistent over multiple administrations Validity- refers to the extent to which a given tool or instrument accurately measures what its supposed to measure Ecological validity- the degree to which research results generalize to real world applications Construct validity- the degree to which a given variable actually captures or measures what it is intended to measure Face validity- the degree to which a given variable seems valid on the surface 2.4 Ethics Research Involving Human Participants ○ Any research institution that receives federal support for research involving human participants must have access to an institutional review board (IRB) IRB- committee of individuals often made up of members of the institutions administration, scientists, and community members Purpose of IRB is to review proposals for research that involve humans Approval from IRB is required for the experiment to proceed Requires several components in any experiment it approves Each participant must sign a consent form Informed consent- provides a written description of what participants can expect during experiment including risks and implications  Deception- involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain integrity of the experiment but not to the extent that it is harmful In cases where deception is involved, participants must receive a full debriefing upon conclusion of study Debriefing- complete, honest info about the purpose of the experiment and how the data collected will be used, reasons why deception was necessary Research Involving Animal Subjects: ○ APA estimates that 90% of all animal research in psych uses rodents or birds ○ Animal experimental proposals are reviewed by an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) CH 3 Biopsychology 3.1 Human genetics Genetic Variation Genetic Variation- the genetic difference between individuals Egg and sperm each contain 23 chromosomes ○ Chromosomes- long strings of genetic material known as DNA ○ In each chromosome, sequences of DNA make up genes ○ genes - control or partially control a number of visible characteristics known as traits such as eye color, hair color, etc ○ A single gene may have multiple possible variations ○ Allele- is a specific version of a gene Genotype- the genetic makeup of a person Phenotype- a person’s inherited physical characteristics which are a combo of genetic and environmental influences Most traits are polygenic- controlled by more than one gene (height, skin color, weight) Gene mutations provide one source of harmful genes ○ A mutation- is a sudden, permanent change in a gene Gene-Environment Interactions Range of reaction- asserts that our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall Genes set definite limits on potential, while environment determiens how mich of that potential is achieved  Genetic environmental correlation- our genes influence our environment and our environment influences the expression of our genes Epigenetics- studies how the same genotype can be expressed in different ways 3.2 Cells of the Nervous System The nervous system is composed of two cell types: glial cells and neurons ○ Glial cells- provide scaffolding on which the nervous system is built, help neurons line up closely with each other to allow communication, provide insulation to neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate immune responses ○ Neurons- serve as interconnected info processors that are essentials for all of the tasks of the nervous system Neuron Structure 100 billion neurons Outer surface is made up of semipermeable membrane ○ Allows smaller moelciles and molecules without an electric charge to pass through, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules Nucleus of neuron is located in the soma (cell body) Soma has dendrites (serve as input sites where signals are received from other neurons These signals are transmitted across the soma and down the axon, which ends at multiple terminal buttons The terminal buttons contain synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the nervous system In some axons glial cells form a fatty substance known as myelin sheath ○ Not continuous and there are gaps known as Nodes of Ranvier Neuronal signal moves down the axon to terminal buttons, where synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft ○ Small space between two neurons and is an important site where communication between neurons occurs After, they travel across it and bind with corresponding receptors on the dendrite of an adjacent neuron ○ Receptors- proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach vary in shape Neuronal Communication The neuron exits in a fluid environment, the neuronal membrane keeps these two fluids separate Resting potential- a state of readiness the neurons membrane is held Threshold of excitation- if the charge of the cell reaches a certain level and the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins Action potential- the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon to axon terminals Reuptake- involves neurotransmitters being pumped back into the neuron that released it Neurotransmitters and drugs Psychotropic medications- drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance Agonists- chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site Antagonist- blocks or impedes the normal activity of a NT at the receptor 3.3 Parts of Nervous System Central nervous system - comprised of the brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system- connects the CNS to the rest of the body PNS Somatic nervous system- associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary ○ Involved in the relay of sensory and motor info ○ Motor neurons- carry instructions from the CNS to the muscles are efferent fibers ○ Sensory neurons- carry sensory info to CNS are afferant fibers Autonomic nervous system- controls internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control ○ Sympathetic ns- involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities ○ Parasympathetic ns- returning the body to routine operations ○ Work together to maintain homeostasis A state of equilibrium in which biological conditions are maintained at optimal levels ○ Fight or flight- allows body to access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so it might fight off or run away 3.4 Brain and Spinal Cord The Spinal Cord The top is a bundle of nerves that merges with brain stem and basic processes of life are controlled, breathing and digestion Ends just below the ribs Organized in 30 segments corresponding with vertebrae Each segment is connected to a specific part of body through the peripheral ns. Sensory nerves bring messages in and motor nerves send messages out to muscles and organs Neuroplasticity Neuroplasticity - how the nervous system can change and adapt The two hemispheres Cerebral cortex- surface of brain and very uneven ○ Gyri- distinctive pattern of folds or bumps ○ Sulci- grooves  Longitudinal fissure- the most prominent sulci, separates the brain into two hemispheres Lateralization- specialization of function in each hemisphere Left- controls the right half of body Right- controls left half of body Two sides are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum ○ Allows the two sides to communicate with each other Forebrain structures Two sides of the cerebral cortex are part of the forebrain which is the largest part of the brain The forebrain contains the cerebral cortex and a number of other structures that lie beneath the cortex (called subcortical structures): thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the limbic system (a collection of structures). Cerebral cortex is associated with levels of consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language and memory Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes with diff functions Lobes of brain Frontal lobe- reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language ○ Contains the motor cortex- planning and coordinating movement ○ Prefrontal cortex- higher level cognitive functioning ○ Brocas area- essential for language production Parietal lobe- located behind the frontal lobe and is involved in processing info from the bodys senses ○ Somatosensory cortex- processing sensory info from across the body (touch, temp, and pain) produces touch and sensation Temporal lobe- located on side of head, hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language ○ Auditory cortex- processes auditory info ○ Wernickes area- speech comprehension Occipital lobe- located at back of brain, primary visual cortex repsonsible for interpreting incoming visual info Other area of forebrain Thalamus- sensory relay for the brain, all senses except smell are routed through thalamus before other parts of brain Limbic system- processes both emotion and memory ○ Smell ○ Hippocampus- learning and memory ○ Amygdala- our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to memories ○ Hypothalamus- regulates a number of homeostatic processes Midbrain and hindbrain structures Midbrain- comprised of structures located deep in brain ○ Reticular formation- centered in midbrain and important in regulating sleep cycle, arousal, alterness, and motor activitu  ○ Substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area produce NT dopamine and critical for movement Hindbrain - located at back of the head, ○ Medulla- controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system, breathing, blood pressure, heart rate ○ Pons- serves to connect the hindbrain to rest of the brain Cerebellum- receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints and structures in our ear to control balance coordination movement and motor skills Brain imaging Techniques involving radiation ○ Computerized tomography (CT) scan- takes number of x-rays of a section of a persons body or brain Often used to determine if someone has tumor ○ Positron emission tomography (PET) - create pictures of the living active brain Person drinks a mildly radioactive substance called a tracer The amount of tracer in any given region of the brain can be monitored and as it becomes more active, more blood flows to that area Shows brains activity Techniques involving magnetic fields ○ Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)- person is placed inside a machine that generates a strong magnetic field Causes hydrogen atoms in the body to move ○ Functional MRI (fMRI) - shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels Provides m,ore detailed images Techniques involving electrical activity ○ Electroencephalography (EEG) serves this purpose by providing a measure of a brain’s electrical activity. An array of electrodes is placed around a person’s head. The signals received by the electrodes result in a printout of the electrical activity of their brain, or brainwaves, showing both the frequency (number of waves per second) and amplitude (height) of the recorded brainwaves, with an accuracy within milliseconds. Such information is especially helpful to researchers studying sleep patterns among individuals with sleep disorders. 3.5 endocrine system Endocrine system- consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones Hormones are chemical messengers that must bind to a receptor Hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body ○ Effects are widespread ○ Slower to take effect, tend to be longer lasting than NT  ○ Controlled through interactions between hypothalamus and the pituitary gland Major Glands Pituitary gland- its messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system ○ Secretes growth hormone, endorphins for pain relief Thyroid gland- located in neck, regulates growth, metabolism and appetite Adrenal glands- sit atop kidneys and secrete hormones involved in stress response Pancreas - secrets hormones and regulates blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon Gonads- secrete sexual hormones ○ Female are ovaries and male are testes ○ Ch 4: states of consciousness 4.1 what is consciousness? Consciousness describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli ○ Awareness of internal includes: feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions ○ Awareness of external: experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend Sleep: is a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness Wakefulness- high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior Biological rhythms Biological rhythms - internal rhythms of biological activity ○ Ex. menstrual cycle Circadian rhythm - biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours ○ Sleep-wake cycle, heart rate, blood sugar Homeostasis - the tendency to maintain a balance within a biological system Brains clock mechanism is located in the area of the hypothalamus known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) Problems with circadian rhythms Melatonin is a regulator of sleep wake cycles ○ The pineal gland, an endocrine structure in the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of immune system while sleeping A person’s chronotype, are individual differences in the circadian patterns of activity Sleep regulation - refers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world Disruptions of Normal Sleep Jet lag - collection of symptoms that result from the mismatch between our internal circadian rhythm and our environment Rotating shift work - a work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis Insufficient sleep Sleep debt - a person who does not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis ○ Can lead to decreased mental alertness and cognitive function ○ Depression like symptoms ○ Obesity Meta-analysis - a study that combines the results of many related studies 4.2 sleep and why we sleep What is sleep Sleep rebound - refers to the fact that a sleep-deprived individual will fall asleep more quickly during subsequent opportunities for sleep Sleep is characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of sleep can be differentiated using it too Cycles are controlled by areas of the brain including thalamus, hypothalamus, and the pons Hypothalmus includes the SCN, the biological clock of the body, and together with the thalamus regulate slow-wave sleep The pons is important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep The pituitary gland secrets follicle stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone and growth hormone during sleep Why do we sleep Evolutionary psychology - a discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result of natural selection ○ Perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures Little research to support this ○ Sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness Maintaining health, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, # of benefits to cognition and memory formation Slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve performance on that task 4.3 stages of sleep While awake our brain wave activity is dominated by beta waves ○ Beta waves have highest frequency and lowest amplitude compared to while asleep  The frequency of a brain wave is how many brain waves occur in a second and measured in hertz Amplitude is the height of a brain wave General phases: REM and non-REM REM sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids ○ Brain waves during rem appear very similar to brain waves while awake non-REM sleep is subdivided into three stages ○ First three stages of sleep are NREM sleep ○ Stage 1 sleep: waves decrease in frequency and increase in amplitude/ transitional stage that occurs between awake and sleep, where we drift off Early stages of stage 1 sleep produces alpha waves Lower in frequency and higher in amplitude than beta waves Increase in theta wave activity Are even lower in frequency and higher in amplitude than alpha ○ Stage 2 sleep: Theta waves still dominate brain activity, but interrupted by brief burst of activity known as sleep spindles Sleep spindles are a rapid burst of higher frequency waves that may be important for memory and learning K- complex - very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli ○ Stage 3: Deep sleep or slow wave sleep Low frequency high amplitude delta waves Lowest frequency and highest amplitude waves of sleeping brain REM Sleep ○ Period of sleep where dreaming occurs ○ Associated with paralysis of muscle systems ○ If people are deprived of rem and then allowed to sleep w out disturbance, they will spend more time in rem known as rem rebound Dreams: ○ Sigmund freud had become convinced by the late 19th century that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious ○ Manifest content of dreams - actual content, or storyline, of a dream ○ Latent content - the hidden meaning of a dream ○ 20th century Carl Jung believed that dreams allowedus to tap into the collective unconscious A theoretical repository of info he believed to be shared by everyone ○ Rosalind Cartwright believes that dreams simply reflect life events that are important to the dreamer Lots of research to back this theory ○ Alan Hobson is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming  Proposed that dreams were not the meaning-filled representations we thought but rather the result of our brain attempting to make sense of the neural activity that was happening during rem ○ Lucid dreams - dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state 4.4 sleep problems and disorders Insomnia - a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep ○ Criteria involves experiencing these symptoms for at least 3 nights a week for at least one month’s time ○ Treatments involve limiting use of stimulant drigs or increase amount of physical exercise ○ Cognitive behavioral therapy - type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors to treat insomnia Parasomnias - unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrom, and night terrors ○ Rem sleep behavior disorder (RBD) - occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the rem sleep phase does not occur Have high levels of physical activity dyring rem sleep Kicking, punching, scratching, yelling Associated with parkinsons disease ○ Restless leg syndrom - uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep ○ Night terrors - result in the sense of panic and are often accompanied by screams Sleep apnea - defined by episodes during which a sleeper’s breathing stops ○ Can last 10-20 seconds or longer ○ Two types: obstructive and central Obstructive: occurs when an individuals airway becomes blocked during sleep Central - disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing ○ Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device is a treatment option SIDS (sudden infant death syndrom)- an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies ○ Premature birth, smoking within the homes, and hyperthermia Narcolepsy - cannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times ○ Associated with cataplexy - a lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases involves complete paralysis of voluntary muscles ○ Triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress 4.5 substance use and abuse Substance use disorders ○ Physical dependence - involves changes in normal bodily functions ○ Psychological dependence - emotional need for the drug  ○ Tolerance - physiological dependence and occurs when a person requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses ○ Withdrawal - variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued Withdrawal in sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitiation Alcohol and other depressants ○ Alcohol is in a class of psychoactive drugs known as depressants Depressants - drug that tends to supress central nervous system Serve as agonists of GABA Pregnant women can give their babies a cluster of birth defects known as fetal alcohol spectrum disorder ○ Stimulants -drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity Act as agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter Stimulant users seek a euphoric high Caffeine is a stimulant drug ○ Opiods - they decrease pain Natural opiods are called opiates ○ Hallucinogens - results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences 4.6 other states of consciousness Hypnosis - a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli Bringing someone to hypnosis: ○ The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotist’s words or a ticking watch. ○ The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and sleepy. ○ The participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, trust the hypnotist and let go. ○ The participant is encouraged to use their imagination. Meditation - act of focusing on a single target to increase awareness of the moment ○ Clearing the mind to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus