INTRO-TO-PSYCHOLOGY.docx

**DISCUSSION NOTES** **PSYCHOLOGY** = scientific study of metal processes and behavior **4 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY** 1. Describe 2. Explain 3. Predict 4. Control **DEFINITION OF THE FOUR GOALS** **1. Describe** = Psychologist observe \[detailed \] how individuals behave and think in variou...

**DISCUSSION NOTES** **PSYCHOLOGY** = scientific study of metal processes and behavior **4 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY** 1. Describe 2. Explain 3. Predict 4. Control **DEFINITION OF THE FOUR GOALS** **1. Describe** = Psychologist observe \[detailed \] how individuals behave and think in various situations. **2. Explain** = They analyze the reasons behind there behaviors and thoughts, seeking 10 understand the underlying factors that influence them. **3. Predict** = Based on their observation, psychologists will forecast how Individuals will behave. **4. Control** = The term \"control" doesn\'t imply \"manipulation\". = refers to using a psychological insights to help improve Individual well-being and societal outcomes. = Psychologists apply their knowledge for the public good by understanding what influences behavior. **Beck Depression Scale** **DSM5** -- handbook for disorders **DIFFERENT FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY** 1. **Clinal Psychologist** -- psychological disorders Ex. Heavy problems that affect everyday life 2. **Counseling** -- adjustment Ex. LGBTQ, light problems, the role of guidance 3. **School Psychologist** -- assistance to students Ex. Bullying, Pwd ramps, pwd friendly 4. **Educational Psychologist** -- curriculum or teaching methods Ex. Would grade 3 students take algebra, makes sure curriculum is aligned to student's comprehension **Developmental Psychologist** -- Biological and cognitive. = From womb to tomb = more on biological changes, bones merging, brain cells forming = cognitive part -- changes in personality Ex. Kids are **egocentric**, they want what they want 5. **Personality Psychologists** -- traits **=** conducts test to determine people's personality 6. **Social Psychologist** -- behavior in social settings Ex. Social experiment of who helps a person that faints (Bystander Effect) 7. **Environmental Psychologist** -- person + nature Ex. Noisy place and need to review 8. **Experimental Psychologist** -- learning motivation, sensation Ex. 2 sections, 1 group that's cold and has sleep stuff, 2 group loud music = 1 room with quiz Result: there is a difference with people who nap vs those who don't 9. **Industrial Psychologist** -- work + person (competencies) Ex. In office when hiring 10. **Organizational Psychologist** -- Behavior in work place Ex. A nickname like "kuyaboss" = easier to get along and not be intimidated 11. **Human factors Psychologist** -- ergonomic Ex. A company making it a better work place = monoblock to soft chairs Better working condition = better productivity 12. **Consumer Psychologist** = shoppers 13. **Health Psychologist** = stress Ex. Stress causes cortisol that leads to headache, shoulders, 14. **Forensic Psychologist** = criminal justice system 15. **Sports Psychologist** = athletes **LESSON 2: HISTORICAL FOUNDATION** **SOCRATES** = **"Know thyself"** by the ancient Greek philosopher, Socrates about 2,500 years ago. **ARISTOTLE** **= LAWS OF THE UNIVERSE** **= AVOID PAIN SEEK PLEASURE** = he lived 2,400 years ago = In a treatise on psychology → human behavior, like the movements of the stars and the seas, is subject to rules and laws. **Delved into his subject matter topic by topic:** personality, sensation and perception, thought, intelligence, needs and motives, feelings and emotion, and memory. **Contributions to contemporary psychology:** ▸▸ He argued that science could rationally treat only information gathered by the senses. ▸▸ He enumerated the so-called five senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. ▸▸ He explored the nature of cause and effect. ▸▸ He pointed out that people differ from other living things in their capacity for rational thought. ▸▸ He outlined laws of associationism that have lain at the heart of learning theory for more than two millennia. ▸▸ He also declared that people are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain---a view that remains as current today as it was in ancient Greece. **DEMOCRITUS** **= BODY AND MIND** **= FREE WILL OR CHOICE** **= "ARE WE SLVES OF PLEASURE OR CAN WE PRIORITIZE OTHER THINGS"** = Around 400 bce = suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and a mind. = He pointed out that our behavior is influenced by external stimulation. = one of the first to raise the question of whether there is free will or choice. "where do the influences of others end and our "real selves" begin?" **SOCRATES** = suggested that we should rely on rational thought and introspection---careful examination of one's own thoughts and emotions---to gain self-knowledge. = pointed out that people are social creatures who influence one another. "we could trace psychology's roots to thinkers farther back in time than the ancient Greeks, and we could trace its development through the great thinkers of the Renaissance." **\*introspection\*** **= deliberate looking into one's own cognitive processes to examine one's thoughts and emotions** **1860** = we must move on to the development of psychology as a laboratory science during the second half of the 19^th^ century. = Some historians set the marker date at 1860. **Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801--1887)** = published his landmark book **Elements of Psychophysics** **Elements of Psychophysics** = showed how physical events (such as lights and sounds) stimulate psychological sensations and perception. = Fechner also showed how we can scientifically measure the effect of these events. **1879** = debut of modern psychology as a laboratory science in the year 1879 = when **Wilhelm Wundt** established the **first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.** **STRUCTURALISM** **The German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832--1920)** = did poorly in elementary school---his mind would wander--- and he had to repeat a grade. = attended medical school because he wanted to earn a good living. = did not like working with patients and dedicated himself to philosophy and psychology. = Wundt saw the mind as a natural occurrence that could be studied scientifically, like light, heat, and the flow of blood. = used introspection to try to discover the basic elements of experience. = Wundt and his students founded the school of psychology called structuralism. **Structuralism** = break conscious experience down into: - **objective sensations** = sight or taste, **5 senses** **subjective feelings =** emotional responses, **= personal experiences** - **mental images** such as memories or dreams. **= structure** = structuralists believed that the mind functions by combining objective and subjective elements of experience. **= claimed there were parts of the brain that operate depending on what we did but MRIS DID NOT EXIST AND THIS IDEA WAS PHASED OUT** **FUNCTIONALISM** **William James (1842--1910)** = focuses on function of behavior = mind and consciousness including behavior the behavior we need to retain and lose over night = as long as behavior serves its purpose we retain it and if not it goes away. = Toward the end of the 19^th^ century he became a major figure in the development of psychology in the United States. = focused on the relation between conscious experience and behavior. = He argued, for example, that the stream of consciousness is fluid and continuous. = Introspection convinced him that experience cannot be broken down into objective sensations and subjective feelings as the structuralists maintained. **School of Functionalism** = founded by William James = focused on behavior as well as the mind or consciousness. = Functionalists looked at how our experience helps us function more adaptively in our environments **Example**: how habits help us cope with common situations. (When eating with a spoon, we do not create an individual plan to bring each morsel of food to our mouths.) = also turned to the laboratory for direct observations as a way to supplement introspection. = Structuralists tended to ask "What are the pieces that make up thinking and experience?" = Functionalists tended to ask "How do behavior and mental processes help people adapt to the requirements of their lives?" = James was also influenced by Charles Darwin's (1809--1882) theory of evolution. = Earlier in the 19th century, the British naturalist Darwin had argued that organisms with adaptive features---that is, the "fittest"---survive and reproduce. = Functionalists adapted Darwin's theory and proposed that adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained. = Maladaptive behavior patterns tend to drop out, and only the fittest behavior patterns survive. = These adaptive actions tend to be repeated and become habits. = James wrote that "habit is the enormous flywheel of society." = Habit keeps the engine of civilization running **BEHAVIORISM** **= observable behavior** **John Broadus Watson** = believed that if psychology were to be a natural science, like physics or chemistry, it must limit itself to observable, measureable events---that is, to behavior alone---hence the term **B. F. Skinner (1904--1990)** = reinforcement techniques = also contributed to behaviorism. He believed that organisms learn to behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced for doing so---that is, their behavior has a positive outcome. = He demonstrated that laboratory animals can be trained to carry out behaviors through strategic use of reinforcers, such as food. **GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY** **Proposed by:** - Max Wertheimer (1880--1943) - Kurt Koffka (1886--1941) - Wolfgang Köhler (1887--1967) **= tackled how the mind perceives things** = focused on perception and how perception influences thinking and problem solving. = The German word Gestalt translates roughly to "pattern" or "organized whole. = In contrast to behaviorists, Gestalt psychologists argued that we cannot hope to understand human nature by focusing only on overt behavior. = In contrast to structuralists, they claimed that we cannot explain human perceptions, emotions, or thought processes in terms of basic units. = showed that we tend to perceive separate pieces of information as integrated wholes depending on the contexts in which they occur.  **PSYCHOANALYSIS** = SIGMUND FREUD **= All of our repressed desired and emotions while young will resurface as we grow up** = much of our lives is governed by unconscious ideas and impulses that originate in childhood conflicts. As a method of psychotherapy, psychoanalysis aims to help patients gain insight into their conflicts and to find socially acceptable ways of expressing wishes and gratifying needs. **LESSON 3: CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY** **THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE** = understanding the relationship between biological process and structures like: - Brain - Endocrine system - Heredity = they impact behavior and mental process = seek the relationships between the brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution, on the one hand, and behavior and mental processes on the other, thoughts, fantasies, and dreams-and the inborn or instinctive behavior patterns of various species-are made possible by the nervous system and especially by the brain. = heredity provides a broad range of behavioral and mental possibilities and the evolution of behavior and mental processes as well. **THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE** = how our brains work when it comes to things like sensing things around us = all about how our minds process information and make sense of the world = all mental activities that help us understand and interact with the world around us = investigate the ways we perceive and mentally represent the world, how we learn, remember the past, plan for the future, solve problems, form judgments, make decisions, and use, study those things we refer to as the mind. **THE HUMANISTIC-EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVE** = about how our thoughts and experiences shape who we are and how we interact with the world = emphasizes importance of self-awareness, choice, and personal responsibility in creating our own path in life = believes that everyone is innately good = emphasizes the role of subjective (personal) experience. **Humanism** \-- human capacity for self-fulfillment believe that self- awareness, experience, and choice permit us, to a large extent, to \"invent ourselves\" and our ways of relating to the world as we progress through life. **Existentialism** views people as free to choose and as being responsible for choosing ethical conduct. **THEORIES THAT EMERGED IN PSYCHOLOGY** **THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE** = focused on exploring unconscious thoughts and feelings **to help people understand and overcome their problems** = even artists and writers sought help from psychodynamic therapists to unlock their creativity and express their hidden thoughts/emotion = way to liberate the expression of their unconscious ideas Contemporary psychologists who follow theories derived from Freud are likely to call themselves neoanalysts. focused less on unconscious processes and more on conscious choice and self-direction. **PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING** = the effects of experience on behavior. Learning-essential factor in describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behaviour. = study the impact of experience on behavior **ID Behavior** = Behavior is influenced by learning history, situations, conscious and rewards choices rather than -- John B. Watson \[ behaviorists \] **ID Social Cognitive** = Individuals can shape their environments and highlight the importance cognition in learning process. = makikita sa environment **Vicarious Learning** = learning from experience of others **SOCIO CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE** = how people are different from each other due to factors like ethnicity, gender, culture and socioeconomic status. = help us understand why individuals benave and think the way they do. = emphasize the significance of ethnicity, gender, in shaping culture, and socio economic status. behavior and mental process. = focuses mainly on the individual and is committed to the dignity of the individual. = believe we cannot understand people\'s behavior and mental processes without reference to their diversity. = It addresses many of the ways that people differ from one another. It studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes. **LESSON 4 : RESEARCH** **RESEARCH** = Scientific method is an organized way of using experience and testing ideas to expand and refine knowledge. **Hypothesis** = is a statement about behavior or mental processes that is testable through research. **Correlation** = an association or a relationship among variables, as we might find between height and weight, or between study habits and school grades. **Selection factor** = a source of bias that may occur in research findings when participants are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study. **Sample** = is a segment of a population that must be drawn so that it accurately represents that population sample is a segment of a population that must be drawn so that it accurately represents that population. **Population** = a complete group of interest to researchers, from which a sample is drawn. **Random sample** = a sample drawn so that each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate. **Stratified sample** = a sample drawn so that identified subgroups in population are represented the proportionately in the sample. **Volunteer bias** = a source of bias or error in research reflecting the prospect that people who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from people who do not. **METHODS IN RESEARCH** **Case study** = a carefully drawn biography that may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests. **Survey\ **= a method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their attitudes or behaviour. Is to learn those cannot be observed in the natural setting or studied experimentally which employ questionnaires and interviews or examine public records. **Naturalistic observation** = organisms are observed in their natural environment, observe people in their natural habitats-every day. = allows to observe behavior where it happens, use unobtrusive measures to avoid interfering with the behaviors they are observing **Correlational method** = investigate whether observed behavior or a measured trait is related to, or correlated with, another. **Correlation coefficient** = a number between +1.00 and -1.00 that expresses the strength and direction of the relationship between two variable. **Positive correlation** = one variable increases or decreases another also variable increases or decreases. **Negative correlations** = as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. **Experiment** = seeks to confirm cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variable. **Independent variable** = condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed **Dependent variables** = measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable. **Experimental groups** = groups whose members obtain the treatment. **Control groups** = whose members do not obtain the treatment, while other conditions are held constant. **Placebo** = bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine, one way of keeping participants blind as to whether they have received a particular, avoid participant\'s bias. **Blind** = unaware of whether or not one has received a treatment **Double-blind study** = study in which neither the subjects nor the observers know who has received the treatment. **ETHICS OF RESEARCH WITH HUMANS** **Informed consent** = participant\'s agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purposes of the study and the nature of the treatments. **Debrief** = to explain the purposes and methods of a completed procedure to a participant. **Critical thinking** = a way of evaluating the claims and comments of other people that involves skepticism and examination of evidence. A process of thoughtfully analyzing and probing the questions, statements, and arguments of others. **PRINCIPLES OF CRITICAL THINKING** **1. Be skeptical.** Keep an open mind. Accept nothing as the truth until you have examined the evidence. **2. Insist on evidence.** Ask for evidence. **3. Examine definitions of terms.** The correctness of the statement depends on the definition of IQ. **4. Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments.** **5. Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence.** **6. Be especially skeptical of anecdotes.** Ask yourself whether a reported experience is satisfactory as evidence. **7. Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence.** **8. Do not oversimplify. Most human behavior involves complex interactions of genetic and environmental influences.** **9. Do not overgeneralize.** **10. Apply critical thinking to all areas of life.** **CHAPTER 2** **Nervous system** = consists of the brain, the spinal cord, and other parts that make it possible for us to receive information from the world outside and to act on it. **Neuron** = a specialized cell of the nervous system that receives and transmits messages. Visualized as having branches, trunks, and roots-something like trees. There are more than 100 billion neurons, most of which are in the brain. **Glial cells** = cells that remove dead neurons and waste products from the nervous system, nourish and insulate neurons, form myelin, and play a role in neural transmission of messages. **Cell body** = contains the core or nucleus of the cell. Nucleus-uses oxygen and nutrients to generate the energy needed to carry out the work of the cell. **Dendrites** = root-like structures, attached to the cell body of a neuron, that receive impulses, or incoming messages, from other neurons. **Axon** = a long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from bulb-shaped structures called axon terminals or terminal buttons. ***Neurons*** carry messages in one direction only: from the dendrites or cell body through the axon to the axon terminals. **Myelin** = a fatty substance that encases and insulates axons, facilitating transmission of neural impulses. **Myelin sheath** = minimizes leakage of the electrical current being carried along the axon, thereby allowing messages to be conducted more efficiently. **Myelination** = is part of the maturation process that leads to a child\'s ability to crawl and walk during the first year. \"Messages\" enter neurons through dendrites, are transmitted along the trunk-like axon, and then are sent from axon terminal buttons to muscles, glands, and other neurons. **Axon** terminal buttons contain sacs of chemicals called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, where many of them bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving neuron.  **Neurotransmitters** 1\. acetylcholine (ACA) - muscle contraction & Places 2\. Hippocampus - memory & naurgating 3\. Dopamine pleasure, reward, motivation 4\. Serotonin mood - sleep, appetie 5\. GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid) - Calm 6\. Endorphines - Natural pain killer 7\. Norepinephrine - Flight or Fight   **afferent neurons** = neurons that transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain; also called sensory neurons **efferent neurons** = neurons that transmit messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands; also called motor neurons **SAME** **Sensory** **= Afferent** **Motor** **= Efferent** **neural impulses** = the electrochemical discharge of a nerve cell or neuron **polarize** = to ready a neuron for firing by creating an internal negative charge in relation to the body fluid outside the cell membrane **resting potential** = the electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is not responding to other neurons **depolarized** = to reduce the resting potential of a cell membrane from about 70 millivolts toward zero **action potential** = the electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron **all-or-none principle** = the fact that a neuron fires an impulse of the same strength whenever its action potential is triggered **refractory period** = a phase following firing during which a neuron is less sensitive to messages from other neurons and will not fire **synapse** a junction between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron **Nervous System Overview** The nervous system is a complex network that controls every aspect of bodily function, from simple reflexes to higher cognitive processes. It is divided into two main parts: the **central nervous system (CNS)** and the **peripheral nervous system (PNS)**. **Key Terminology and Divisions** **Nerves** = Bundles of axons that transmit signals across the nervous system. **Central Nervous System (CNS)** = Consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain processes and interprets sensory information, while the spinal cord transmits messages to and from the brain. **Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)** = Connects the CNS to the rest of the body. It is further divided into: **Somatic Nervous System**: Manages voluntary muscle movements and sensory information (afferent neurons = sensory, efferent neurons = motor). **Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)**: Controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, digestion, and glandular activity. It has two divisions: **Sympathetic Nervous System**: Activates the \"fight or flight\" response during stressful situations (increases heart rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion). **Parasympathetic Nervous System**: Responsible for \"rest and digest\" activities (slows heart rate, stimulates digestion, contracts pupils). **Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)** - **Afferent Neurons** = Sensory neurons that send signals from sensory organs (e.g., skin, eyes) to the brain and spinal cord. - **Efferent Neurons** = Motor neurons that send signals from the CNS to muscles and glands for actions and movements. **Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)** 1. **Sympathetic Division** - Prepares the body for emergencies or high-energy activity. - Increases heart rate, expands air passages in the lungs, dilates pupils, and inhibits non-essential functions like digestion. 2. **Parasympathetic Division** - Promotes energy conservation and resource replenishment. - Stimulates digestion, slows the heart rate, constricts pupils, and supports regular bodily maintenance during restful states. **The Reflex Arc** A **reflex arc** is an automatic, involuntary response to stimuli. It involves: - **Sensory Neuron** = Carries the signal from the stimulus to the spinal cord. - **Interneuron** = Processes the signal in the spinal cord. - **Motor Neuron** = Sends a command from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce a response (e.g., pulling your hand away from a hot object). Reflexes are protective actions that occur without conscious thought, allowing for faster response times. Spinal Cord - The **spinal cord** is the body\'s central processing unit for basic reflexes and is composed of: **Gray Matter** = Contains neuron cell bodies and processes sensory and motor information. **White Matter** = Contains myelinated axons that carry signals to and from the brain. The spinal cord transmits sensory signals from the body to the brain and sends motor commands from the brain to the muscles. **Additional Details:** - **Somatic Nervous System**: - Transmits sensory information like touch, temperature, and pain to the CNS. - Controls voluntary movements like walking, running, and typing. - **Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)**: - Regulates functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and blood pressure. - Divided into two opposing branches (sympathetic and parasympathetic), which work to maintain homeostasis. **Example Functions of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions** - **Sympathetic Division**: - Dilates pupils for better vision during emergencies. - Accelerates heart rate to supply muscles with more oxygen. - Inhibits digestion to conserve energy for critical functions. - **Parasympathetic Division**: - Contracts pupils to focus on near objects. - Slows down heart rate to promote rest. - Stimulates digestive activity to process food. **Key Concepts from Images** - **Fight or Flight Response**: The body\'s immediate reaction to stress, controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. Increases energy availability for survival. - **Rest and Digest Response**: The body\'s state during rest, managed by the parasympathetic nervous system, allowing for energy conservation and recovery. #### Sensation - **Definition**: Sensation is the stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system (the spinal cord or brain). - **Sensory Receptors**: These are found in sensory organs such as the eyes, ears, skin, and elsewhere in the body. - **Automatic Process**: Sensation occurs automatically, triggered by sources of energy like light and sound, or by chemicals (e.g., in taste and smell). #### Perception - **Definition**: Perception is an active process by which sensations are organized and interpreted to form an inner representation of the world. - **Key Idea**: Perception is *not* mechanical---it involves the brain\'s interpretation to create meaning. #### Important Quotes - **Lord Byron**: *\"The great art of life is sensation, to feel that we exist, even in pain.\"* #### Perceptual Variability - Perception may change based on experiences, expectations, and context (e.g., visual illusions). - Perception also varies depending on size, distance, and the context of the observer's experience. ### **Absolute Threshold** - **Definition**: Introduced by Gustav Fechner, the absolute threshold is the minimum amount of sensory stimulation needed to be detected 50% of the time. - **Psychophysics**: The field that studies how physical stimuli relate to our sensory experiences. - **Absolute Thresholds for Human Senses**: Different senses have varying thresholds depending on sensitivity **Truth vs. Fiction: Understanding Senses** - **Truth**: Other animals and humans could see infrared light if we could detect longer wavelengths of light (e.g., warm-blooded animals emit infrared radiation). - **Fiction**: People have only five senses. (In reality, humans may have more than five senses, including balance, temperature, and more.) ### **Subliminal Stimulation** - **Definition**: Subliminal stimulation refers to stimuli that are below the absolute threshold, meaning we are not consciously aware of them. - **Effectiveness**: While such stimuli can affect our behavior, their impact is limited, and they cannot make us act against our will. ### **Additinal Key Terms** - **Absolute Threshold**: The minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to be detected 50% of the time. - **Difference Threshold**: The smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected. - **Signal-Detection Theory**: A framework for predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise. - **Sensory Adaptation**: The reduced sensitivity to a stimulus after prolonged exposure. - **Feature Detectors**: Neurons in the brain that respond to specific features like edges, angles, and movement. **VISION** **eyes are literally our "windows on the world."**  **different kinds of electromagnetic energy have signature wavelengths:** **▸▸ Cosmic rays: The wavelengths of these rays from** **outer space are only a few trillionths of an inch long.** **▸▸ Radio waves: Some radio signals extend for miles.** **▸▸ Visible light: Roses are red, and violets are blue.** **violet the shortest at about 400 billionths of a meter in length and red the longest at 700 billionths of a meter** **hue** the color of light, as determined by its wavelength **cornea** transparent tissue forming the outer surface of the eyeball The wavelength of visible light determines its color, **or hue.** **Lens: a transparent body behind the iris that focuses an image on the retina** **Retina: the area of the inner surface of the eye that contains rods and cones** **Photoreceptors: cells that respond to light** **Bipolar cells: neurons that conduct neural impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells** **Ganglion cells:** neurons whose axons form the optic nerve ** ** **Optic nerve:** the nerve that transmits sensory information from the eye to the brain **Rods:** rod-shaped photoreceptors that are sensitive only to the intensity of light **Cones:** cone-shaped photoreceptors that transmit sensations of color ** ** **Fovea:** an area near the center of the retina that is dense with cones and where vision is consequently most acute **Blind spot:** the area of the retina where axons from ganglion cells meet to form the optic nerve **Visual acuity:** sharpness of vision **complementary** = descriptive of colors of the spectrum that when combined produce white or nearly white light **afterimage** = the lingering visual impression made by a stimulus that has been removed Trichromat: A person with normal color vision. Monochromat: A person who is sensitive to black and white only and hence color-blind. Dichromat: A person who is sensitive to black-white and either red-green or blue-yellow and hence is partially color-blind. Closure: The tendency to perceive a broken figure as being complete or whole. Perceptual organization: The tendency to integrate perceptual elements into meaningful patterns. Proximity: Nearness; the perceptual tendency to group together objects that are near one another. Similarity: The perceptual tendency to group together objects that are similar in appearance.   Continuity: The tendency to perceive a series of points or lines as having unity.   Common fate: The tendency to perceive elements that move together as belonging together. Top-down processing: the use of contextual information or knowledge of a pattern in order to organize parts of the pattern Bottom-up processing: The organization of the parts of a pattern to recognize, or form an image of, the pattern they compose.   Illusions: Sensations that give rise to misperceptions. Stroboscopic motion: A visual illusion in which the perception of motion is generated by a series of stationary images that are presented in rapid succession.   Monocular cues: Stimuli suggestive of depth that can be perceived with only one eye. THE EAR **Introduction** The human ear is a complex organ designed to capture, process, and interpret sound waves. It consists of three primary parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Each part plays a crucial role in transforming sound vibrations into electrical signals that the brain can interpret as sound. **The Outer Ear** The outer ear is the visible part of the ear that collects sound waves from the environment. It consists of the auricle (the visible part of the ear) and the external auditory canal. The auricle funnels sound waves into the external auditory canal, which directs them towards the eardrum.   **The Middle Ear** The middle ear is a small, air-filled cavity located within the temporal bone of the skull. It contains three tiny bones known as the malleus, incus, and stapes, which are also referred to as the \"hammer,\" \"anvil,\" and \"stirrup\" due to their shapes. These bones act as a lever system, amplifying the sound vibrations that reach the eardrum. The eardrum, a thin membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear, vibrates in response to sound waves. These vibrations are transmitted to the malleus, which in turn transmits them to the incus and then to the stapes. The stapes is attached to the oval window, a membrane that covers an opening to the inner ear. **The Inner Ear** The inner ear is a complex labyrinth of bony structures filled with fluid. It houses the cochlea, the semicircular canals, and the vestibular sacs. The cochlea is a spiral-shaped cavity that contains the auditory nerve, which transmits sound signals to the brain. Inside the cochlea is the basilar membrane, a membrane that runs along its length. The organ of Corti, a sensory organ that contains tiny hair cells, sits on the basilar membrane. When sound waves reach the inner ear, they cause the basilar membrane to vibrate. This vibration causes the hair cells to bend, which generates electrical signals that are transmitted to the auditory nerve.  **Cochlea:** The inner ear; the bony tube that contains the basilar membrane and the organ of Corti.  **Basilar membrane:** A membrane that lies coiled within the cochlea.  **Organ of Corti:** The receptor for hearing that lies on the basilar membrane in the cochlea.  **Auditory nerve:** The axon bundle that transmits neural impulses from the organ of Corti to the brain. **Types of Deafness** There are two primary types of deafness: conductive deafness and sensorineural deafness. **Conductive Deafness:** This type of deafness occurs when there is damage to the structures of the middle ear, including the eardrum or the bones that transmit sound vibrations from the outer ear to the inner ear. Conductive deafness is often associated with age-related changes or ear infections. It can sometimes be corrected with medical treatment or hearing aids. **Sensorineural Deafness:** This type of deafness results from damage to the inner ear, specifically the hair cells or the auditory nerve. Sensorineural deafness is often caused by exposure to loud noises, age-related degeneration, or underlying medical conditions. It is typically more severe than conductive deafness and may not be fully correctable with hearing aids. **Theories of Pitch Perception** Two main theories explain how the brain perceives the pitch of a sound: place theory and frequency theory. **Place Theory:** This theory proposes that the pitch of a sound is determined by the specific location on the basilar membrane that vibrates in response to the sound. Different frequencies stimulate different regions of the membrane. **Frequency Theory:** This theory suggests that the pitch of a sound is reflected in the frequency of the neural impulses generated in response to the sound. The brain interprets the rate of these impulses as pitch. "In so-called Hunter's notch, the loss is limited to the frequencies of the sound waves generated by a gun firing. Prolonged exposure to **85 dB can cause hearing loss.** **People who attend rock concerts, where sounds may reach 140 dB, risk damaging their ears, as do workers who run pneumatic drills or drive noisy vehicles.**" **Flavor: A Multifaceted Sensation** Flavor is a complex sensory experience that is influenced by multiple factors, including: **Odor:** The sense of smell plays a significant role in determining flavor. Many of the flavors we perceive are actually odors that reach our olfactory receptors through the nasal passages. **Texture:** The texture of food can influence how we perceive its flavor. For example, a smooth texture can enhance the perception of sweetness, while a rough texture can make a food seem more bitter. **Temperature:** Temperature can alter the perception of flavor. For instance, hot food often tastes more intense than cold food. **The Sense of Smell** The sense of smell, also known as olfaction, involves the detection of odor molecules in the air. These molecules enter the nasal cavity and bind to olfactory receptors, which are located in the olfactory epithelium. The olfactory receptors transmit signals to the olfactory nerve, which carries the information to the brain. **The Sense of Taste** The sense of taste is primarily responsible for detecting the basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. Taste receptors, called taste cells, are located in taste buds, which are found on the tongue, palate, and epiglottis. When taste molecules come into contact with taste cells, they trigger a series of chemical reactions that generate signals that are transmitted to the brain    **CHAPTER 9 - \"THE VOYAGE THROUGH THE LIFE SPAN\"** ### 1. **Prenatal Development (9-1)** This section describes the critical events that occur during prenatal development, starting from the union of sperm and egg to the formation of the zygote, and leading up to the fetal stage. It explains the three stages: - **Germinal Stage:** First two weeks after conception, focusing on the zygote\'s development. - **Embryonic Stage:** Weeks 3-8, where major organs begin to form. - **Fetal Stage:** The longest stage, lasting from the ninth week until birth, focusing on growth and organ maturation. The chapter emphasizes how sex hormones influence this process, particularly how the presence of androgens determines male differentiation. ### 2. **Childhood: Physical Development (9-2)** Childhood is marked by rapid physical changes. The text highlights the growth spurts, sensory development, and motor skills that children acquire, from crawling to walking. It underscores the importance of milestones like grasping and the gradual development of depth perception and coordination in early life. ### 3. **Cognitive Development in Childhood (9-3)** This section introduces Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, focusing on how children think, reason, and solve problems during different stages. It covers the stages of cognitive development: - **Sensorimotor Stage:** From birth to about age 2, children learn through sensory experiences. - **Preoperational Stage:** From age 2 to 7, characterized by symbolic thinking but limitations in logic. - **Concrete Operational Stage:** From ages 7 to 11, where logical thinking develops. - **Formal Operational Stage:** From age 11 and up, where abstract and hypothetical reasoning takes hold. ### 4. **Social and Emotional Development in Childhood (9-4)** This section discusses attachment theory, particularly Mary Ainsworth's work on the different attachment styles in children. It also delves into emotional regulation and the socialization process, explaining how children learn to interact with others, form relationships, and develop their identities. ### 5. **Adolescence (9-5)** Adolescence is portrayed as a time of significant change, including puberty and the cognitive and emotional shifts that come with it. The chapter touches on issues like identity formation, as described by Erik Erikson's stage of \"ego identity vs. role confusion.\" Social relationships, peer pressure, and adolescent egocentrism are also explored. ### 6. **Emerging Adulthood (9-6)** The concept of emerging adulthood (ages 18-25) is a relatively new stage of development. It captures the phase when individuals explore their identities, careers, and relationships while often delaying traditional adult roles like marriage and parenthood. ### 7. **Adulthood (9-7)** This section covers physical, cognitive, and emotional changes that occur throughout adulthood, including early, middle, and late adulthood. Key ideas discussed include the peak physical fitness in early adulthood, midlife challenges, and the concept of "generativity vs. stagnation," as proposed by Erikson. The chapter also discusses how older adults cope with aging, focusing on issues of wisdom, ego integrity, and the \"sandwich generation\" phenomenon where middle-aged adults care for both children and aging parents. ### **9-1 Prenatal Development** - **Germinal Stage (Conception to 2 weeks):** Begins with fertilization, forming a zygote, which divides and implants in the uterine wall. - **Embryonic Stage (2 to 8 weeks):** Major body organs develop, and the heart starts beating. - **Fetal Stage (9 weeks to birth):** Growth and maturation of organs occur, and movements begin by the fourth month. Key systems like the lungs and heart mature as the fetus gains weight​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...)​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). ### **9-2 Childhood: Physical Development** - **Infancy (Birth to 2 years):** Rapid growth as infants double their weight by five months and triple it by one year. Reflexes (e.g., rooting, sucking) are essential for survival. Perceptual skills such as depth perception develop​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). - **Motor Development:** Skills like crawling and walking emerge, as children gain muscle control​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). ### **9-3 Childhood: Cognitive Development** - **Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory:** - **Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years):** Infants learn through direct interaction with their environment, experiencing object permanence. - **Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years):** Children use symbols (like language) but lack logical operations, showing egocentrism and struggling with conservation. - **Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years):** Logical thinking develops, allowing children to perform mental operations like categorizing objects based on multiple characteristics. - **Formal Operational Stage (12 and beyond):** Abstract and hypothetical thinking emerges​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). ### **9-4 Childhood: Social and Emotional Development** - **Attachment Theory (Ainsworth):** - **Secure Attachment:** Children are distressed when caregivers leave and comforted upon return. - **Insecure Attachment:** Includes avoidant and ambivalent styles. Avoidant children avoid caregivers, while ambivalent children are highly distressed when separated​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). - **Parenting Styles (Baumrind):** - **Authoritative:** High expectations with warmth. - **Authoritarian:** Strict, less warmth. - **Permissive:** Lenient, little discipline. - **Uninvolved:** Minimal engagement​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). - **Erikson's Psychosocial Stages:** - **Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy):** Developing trust in caregivers. - **Autonomy vs. Shame (Toddlerhood):** Gaining a sense of independence​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). ### **9-5 Adolescence** - **Physical Development:** Puberty marks the onset, characterized by growth spurts and sexual maturation. - **Cognitive Development (Formal Operations Stage):** Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning abilities improve. Adolescents experience egocentrism, often feeling as though they are on stage (imaginary audience)​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...)​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). - **Emotional and Social Development:** Adolescence involves identity exploration, with Erikson's **Identity vs. Role Confusion** stage central. Peer influence becomes significant​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...)​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). ### **9-6 Emerging Adulthood** - A transitional stage from adolescence (roughly ages 18-25), where individuals explore life paths such as career choices, relationships, and personal identity​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). ### **9-7 Adulthood** - **Early Adulthood (20s to 40s):** Focuses on establishing independence, careers, and intimate relationships (Erikson's **Intimacy vs. Isolation** stage)​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). - **Middle Adulthood (40s to 60s):** Characterized by **Generativity vs. Stagnation**---a desire to contribute to society through work or parenthood​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...). - **Late Adulthood:** Erikson's final stage, **Ego Integrity vs. Despair**, involves reflecting on life with a sense of fulfillment or regret​(Spencer A. Rathus - Psy...).