Psychology of Human Development and Learning Notes PDF

EDC 241 PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING MS. DELIGHT ABLA KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  WEEK 1- INTRODUCTION Definition of Psychology Myths about Psychology Pseudo Psychology Branches a...

EDC 241 PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING MS. DELIGHT ABLA KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  WEEK 1- INTRODUCTION Definition of Psychology Myths about Psychology Pseudo Psychology Branches and Subfields of Psychology Definitional of Developmental Psychology and Learning Growth, Maturation and Development Domains of Development Principles of growth and development and its educational implications MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY Definition of Psychology What do you know or what have you heard about psychology MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Definition and Meaning of Psychology ▪ Psychology – comes from the Greek words “Psyche” meaning “mind” and “logia” or “logos” meaning, “the study of something”. ▪ Psychology – The scientific study of overt behavior and mental processes (Coon & Mitterer, 2016) ▪ Keywords: Science, behaviour, mental processes ▪ Psychology helps to explain how we think, feel and act both individually and as a group MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Myths about Psychology Psychology is about mind or face reading Psychology is all about common sense People who study psychology are mentally disturbed Psychologist work only in hospitals or work with only the mentally ill Psychologist have spiritual powers and can foretell the future MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Pseudo Psychology It refers to any false and unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behaviour. Examples include: Palmistry Phrenology Graphology Astrology MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Branches of Psychology Pure Psychology is a theoretical science that seeks to broaden and develop human understanding. Pure psychologists are interested in researching and recognizing processes and pathways that underlie individual behaviours. Applied psychology is practical and seeks to extend and improve the aspects and phases of human life and behaviour. They apply the theories and concepts of psychology to describe, explain, forecast and control behavior in various fields and industries MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Subfields of Psychology Clinical Psychology: This field is concerned with applying psychological theories and principles to help people with mental health or psychological disorders. They do psychotherapy; investigates clinical problems; develops methods of treatment. Industrial/Organizational Psychology: They study organizational behaviour. They selects job applicants; does skills analysis; evaluates on-the-job training; improves work environments and human relations in organizations and work settings MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Subfields of Psychology Educational Psychology: This field investigates or studies classroom dynamics, teaching styles, and learning; develops educational tests, evaluates educational programs. Social Psychology: Investigates human social behavior, including attitudes, conformity, persuasion, prejudice, friendship, aggression, helping, and so forth. Forensic Psychology: Studies problems of crime and crime prevention, rehabilitation programs, prisons, courtroom dynamics; selects candidates for police work. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Subfields of Psychology Child Psychology: Child psychology is the study of subconscious and conscious childhood development. Child psychologists observe how a child interacts with their parents, themselves, and the world, to understand their mental development. Parapsychology: Parapsychology is a field of study that investigates paranormal or “psychic" phenomena, including purported mental abilities such as telepathy and telekinesis. They test the existence and explore the nature of experiences and abilities in the paranormal realm. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Subfields of Psychology Military Psychology: This field applies psychological principles and methods to the military environment in the areas of recruitment, training, socializing, assigning, employing, deploying, motivating, rewarding, maintaining, managing, integrating, retaining, transitioning, supporting, counseling, and healing military members. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY Developmental Psychology MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Developmental Psychology This field focuses on human growth and changes across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth (APA, 2020). Psychologists in this field study how people grow, develop and adapt at different life stages. They conduct research designed to help people reach their full potential MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Goals of Developmental Psychology 1. Description – This is to describe behaviours. One should be able to describe what transpires across the lifespan of the human organism. 2. Explanation – This is to explain behaviour. Why do people do the things they do? What factors contribute to the child’s way of thinking and talking? MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Goals of Developmental Psychology 3. Prediction – To make predictions about how one thinks and act to predict developmental changes. When prediction is successful, it can help the teacher or psychologist to make guesses 4. Change – To help influence and control behaviour to make lasting changes in people’s lives. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Development Development is defined as the orderly and progressive changes that do occur according to time as organisms move from conception to death. Human development entails growth and maturation. Though, people use the words growth and maturation interchangeably, in Psychology, they are a little different. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Growth and Maturation Growth - It is the physical of development. It is quantifiable. Can be measured and influenced by genetics. Maturation – It is the intellectual or emotional process of development. Unlike growth, maturation is often not quantifiable and influenced by genetics. It can be said that it is the qualitative change that occurs in an individual at a particular stage in life for the performance of a certain task. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Learning Learning – It is when a person acquires knowledge or experience. Learning requires environmental influence. Therefore, learning is defined as knowledge gained through study or a change in behaviour of an individual through experience. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Domains of Development Physical Domain: Changes in body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, and physical health. Cognitive Domain: Changes in intellectual abilities, including attention, memory, academic and everyday knowledge, problem solving, imagination, creativity, and language. Socioemotional Domain: Changes in emotional communication, self- understanding, knowledge about other people, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, and moral reasoning and behavior MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Principles of Human Development There is a set of principles that characterizes the pattern and process of growth and development. Cephalocaudal Principle – This states that development proceeds from top to bottom. A child will gain physical control of their head first. After which the physical control will move downwards to the arms and to the legs. A new born will need support with head. By 2 months, it develops strength to hold the head. In the next few months, the baby gains control over the use of the arms. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Principles of Human Development Proximodistal Principle – Also describes the direction of development. This principle states that development proceeds from the center of the body outward. For a fertilized egg, the cell divides and expand outward to become an embryo. Spinal cord forms limbs of the body form before the hands and the feet and the hands and the feet develop before the fingers and toes. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Principles of Human Development Orthogenetic Principle – Does not involve the direction of development. It states that development proceeds from simple to the complex. This implies that development of more complex tasks begin with the mastery of simple tasks first. Meaning one stage of development lays the foundation for the next stage of development. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Principles of Human Development Development is Continuous – development goes on continuously throughout life. Growth reaches maturity. Even after maturity has been attained, development does not end. Development is Sequential – Every species, follows a pattern of development to it. This pattern is same for everyone. E.g. A child crawls before he creeps, stands before he walks and babbles before he talks. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Principles of Human Development Development proceeds from general to specific – In every type of development, general activity proceeds specific activity. E.g. infants after birth are able to make general movements with the eyes, arms and legs. After the perfection of these general movements, infants learn to make specific movements. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Principles of Human Development Development is Gradual – Development does not come all of a sudden. It is cumulative in nature. Rate of development varies from person to person – Development rate is not uniform. Boys and girls have different development rates and each part of the body has its own particular rate of growth. There are periods of intensity and equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Principles of Human Development Development is predictable – Physiological and psychological potentialities can be predicted by observation and psychological tests Growth and development is of both hereditary and influenced by environmental factors – for e.g. poor nutrition can mare the growth of an individual. Reduce intellectual abilities and stature. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Principles of Human Development Most traits are correlated in development – It is known in development that most of the traits are correlated or related. For instance, a child whose mental development is above average, is also superior in so many other aspects like health, sociability and special aptitudes. A child who has a good health can be active socially and intellectually. This means that there is constant interaction between all the factors of development. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Educational Implications of the Principles 1. The directions of human development, e.g. simple to complex, general to specific, must be considered in planning activities for the children to assure satisfaction. 2. Taking into consideration the individual variation in growth, the school programmes must be adjusted accordingly to suit students variations. 3. Teachers and parents should consider the maturation of the pupils or students so they do not demand of students what is beyond their stage MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY Other Educational Implications LET’S DISCUSS MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  EDC 241 PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  WEEK 2 - Conception and Prenatal Development Development Male and Female Reproductive Systems Conception Prenatal Development The germinal stage The embryonic stage The fetal stage Labour MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Male Reproductive System The male reproductive system is a grouping of organs that make up a man’s reproductive and urinary systems. These organs include the bladder, the seminal vesicle, epididymis, urethra, prostrate gland, pubic bone etc. What functions do these organs perform? MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Male Reproductive System Penis - The male organ for sexual intercourse. It is also the medium through which the urethra exits which allows semen and urine to be released. Testis- The testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for producing sperm. Scrotum- The scrotum protects the testes. Epididymis- It carries and stores sperm cells that are created in the testes. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Male Reproductive System Urethra- It is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of your body. It also expels (ejaculates) semen during orgasm. Prostrate gland - The prostate's primary function is to produce the fluid that nourishes and transports sperm (seminal fluid). Bladder - The bladder stores urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Male Reproductive System Seminal Vesicle - The seminal vesicles make a sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that provides sperm with a source of energy and helps with the sperms’ ability to move (motility). Pubic bone – It protect the intestines, bladder, and internal sex organs Ductus/Vas deferens – It transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Female Reproductive System Oviduct/Fallopian tube - These small tubes transport ova from the ovaries to the uterus. This is where an egg waits to be fertilized. Ovaries - The female gonads, the ovaries produce ova. When one matures, it is released down into a fallopian tube. Uterus - This organ holds and nourishes a developing fetus, if an egg was properly fertilized. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Female Reproductive System Corpus luteum – It make the uterus a healthy place for a fetus to grow. It releases a hormone called progesterone that prepares your uterus for pregnancy. Endometrium - It prepares the uterus for implantation, and maintenance of pregnancy if implantation occurs, as well as menstruation in the absence of pregnancy. Myometrium - It plays an active role during childbirth when it contracts rhythmically to force the baby out of the mother's body. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Female Reproductive System Cervix – It is the door to the female reproductive system. It allows sperm passage into the uterus through the endocervical canal and it produces mucus to facilitate sperm entry. Vagina- This muscular tube receives the penis during intercourse and through it a baby leaves the uterus during childbirth. Follicles - They secrete hormones which influence stages of the menstrual cycle in women. Each has the potential to release an egg for fertilisation MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Conception Females of reproductive age (beginning anywhere from 11 to 16 years of age) experience cycles of hormonal activity that repeat at about one-month intervals. With every cycle, a woman’s body prepares for a potential pregnancy, whether or not that is the woman’s intention. The term menstruation refers to the periodic shedding of the uterine lining. Many women call the days that they notice vaginal bleeding their “period,” “menstrual” or “cycle”. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Conception The average menstrual cycle takes about 28 days and occurs in phases. These phases include: ✓The follicular phase (development of the egg) ✓The ovulatory phase (release of the egg) ✓The luteal phase (hormone levels decrease if the egg does not implant) MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Conception Foundation of life starts from conception. Each month inside a woman’s ovaries, a group of eggs starts to grow in small, fluid-filled sacs called follicles. Eventually, one of the eggs erupts from the follicle (ovulation). It usually happens about 2 weeks before your next period. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Conception After the egg leaves the follicle, the follicle develops into something called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum releases a hormone that helps thicken the lining of your uterus, getting it ready for the egg. The egg travels to the Fallopian Tube MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Conception After the egg is released, it moves into the fallopian tube. It stays there for about 24 hours, waiting for a single sperm to fertilize it. After intercourse, conception occurs when a sperm cell combines with an egg cell to form zygote. If no sperm is around to fertilize the egg, it moves through the uterus and disintegrates. Your hormone levels go back to normal. Your body sheds the thick lining of the uterus, and your period starts (menstruation). MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY Conception Video MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Prenatal Development This refers to the period of development between conception till birth. Usually, it takes 9 months for the baby to fully develop before birth. Different fields have different stages of characterizing the developmental stage before birth. In medicine, it is divided into three trimesters. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Prenatal Development In Psychology, this period is divided into three stages: The germinal stage (0-2 weeks) The embryonic stage (3-8 weeks) The fetal stage (9 weeks-birth) MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  The Germinal Stage If one sperm does make its way into the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg, it fertilizes the egg. The egg changes so that no other sperm can get in. At the instant of fertilization, your baby's genes and sex are set. If the sperm has a Y chromosome, your baby will be a boy. If it has an X chromosome, the baby will be a girl. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  The Germinal Stage The zygote soon begins to divide rapidly in a process called cleavage, first into two identical cells called blastomeres, which further divide to four cells, then into eight, and so on. The group of diving cells begins to move along the fallopian tube toward the uterus. About sixty hours after fertilization, approximately sixteen cells have formed and three days after fertilization, the cells enters the uterus. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  The Germinal Stage Implantation, the process in which the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall, occurs approximately six days after conception. Implantation marks the end of the germinal stage and the beginning of the embryonic stage. However, if implantation fails, the pregnancy terminates On the other hand, if it implants itself in the fallopian tube (oviduct), then ectopic pregnancy results. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  The Embryonic Stage The embryonic stage begins after implantation and lasts until eight weeks after conception. Soon after implantation, the cells continue to rapidly divide and clusters of cells begin to take on different functions (called differentiation). A process (gastrulation) leads to the formation of three distinct layers called germ layers: MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  The Embryonic Stage These three layers are: The ectoderm (outer layer), The mesoderm (middle layer), The endoderm (inner layer). MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  The Embryonic Stage As the embryo develops, each germ layer differentiates into different tissues and structures. The process of differentiation continues with different structures forming simultaneously. By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential external and internal structures have been formed. The embryo is now referred to as a fetus. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  The Embryonic Stage As the embryo develops, each germ layer differentiates into different tissues and structures. The process of differentiation continues with different structures forming simultaneously. By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential external and internal structures have been formed. The embryo is now referred to as a fetus. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  The Fetal Stage Prenatal development is most dramatic during the fetal stage. When an embryo becomes a fetus at eight weeks, it is approximately 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) in length from crown to rump and weighs about 3 grams (0.1 ounce). By the time the fetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks gestation, he or she may be 50 centimeters (20 inches) or 3.3 kilograms (7.3 pounds). MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  The Fetal Stage Although all the organ systems were formed during embryonic development, they continue to develop and grow during the fetal stage. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Critical Periods in Prenatal Development This refers to periods when delicate and also important organs and systems in the body are formed. When the uterine wall is not conducive, there will be abnormalities The critical periods are first trimester after conception, the 7th month and the 9th month. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Labour Labour is the process by which the fetus and the placenta leave the uterus. Delivery can occur in two ways: Through the vagina By cesarean section. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Labour Factors contributing to caesarian birth Prolonged labor. Abnormal positioning. Fetal distress. Birth defects. Repeated cesarean births. Chronic health condition. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Stages of Labour The first stage begins with the woman's first contractions and continues until she is dilated fully (10 centimeters, or 4 inches), which means the cervix has stretched to prepare for birth. The second stage is the active stage, in which the pregnant woman begins to push downward. It begins with complete dilation of the cervix and ends with the actual birth. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  Stages of Labour The third stage, or placental stage, begins with the birth and ends with the completed delivery of the placenta and afterbirth. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY Labour Video MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY  EDC 241 PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING 8/9/2022 MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY 1 WEEK 3 – THREATS TO PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Chromosomes, DNA, Genes Genotype and Phenotype Genetic Inheritance Threats to prenatal, perinatal and postnatal development Autosomal and Sex-linked disorders Environmental threats Educational Implications MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 2 KLUTSEY  Chromosomes Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells. Each human has 46 chromosomes, 23 each from each parent. Twenty-two (22) of these are called autosomes and the 23rd is the sex chromosome Females have XX and males have XY A typical human cell is made up of 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 3 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 4 KLUTSEY  Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) It is an extremely long chain of molecules that contains all the information necessary for the life functions of a cell. DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of living creature unique MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 5 KLUTSEY  Genes They are the fundamental unit of heredity; a specific section of DNA that tells a cell how to make a specific protein. Proteins are used by the cell to perform certain functions, to grow, and to survive. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 6 KLUTSEY  Allele An allele is one of two or more versions of a gene. An individual inherits two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. If the two alleles are the same, the individual is homozygous for that gene. If the alleles are different, the individual is heterozygous. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 7 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 8 KLUTSEY  Genotype and Phenotype The genotype is a person’s unique combination of genes or genetic makeup. Thus, the genotype is a complete set of instructions on how that person’s body synthesizes proteins and thus how that body is supposed to be built and function. A phenotype is an individual's observable traits, such as height, eye color, and blood type. Not all the instructions in the genotype may be carried out (or expressed). MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 9 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 10 KLUTSEY  Dominant and Recessive Genes/Alleles Genes/Alleles can be dominant or recessive. Dominant alleles show their effect even if the individual only has one copy of the allele (also known as being heterozygous?). For example, the allele for brown eyes is dominant, therefore you only need one copy of the 'brown eye' allele to have brown eyes (although, with two copies you will still have brown eyes). MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 11 KLUTSEY  Dominant and Recessive Genes/Alleles If both alleles are dominant, it is called codominance. The resulting characteristic is due to both alleles being expressed equally. An example of this is the blood group AB which is the result of codominance of the A and B dominant alleles. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 12 KLUTSEY  Dominant and Recessive Genes/Alleles Recessive alleles only show their effect if the individual has two copies of the allele (also known as being homozygous). For example, the allele for blue eyes is recessive, therefore to have blue eyes you need to have two copies of the 'blue eye' allele. Some of the traits or characteristics passed through to children through genetic inheritance include eye colour and blood type. Some health conditions and diseases can be passed on genetically too MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 13 KLUTSEY  Blood Group For blood groups, the alleles are A, B and O. The A allele is dominant over the O allele. So, a person with one A allele and one O allele (AO) has blood group A. Blood group A is said to have a dominant inheritance pattern over blood group O. If a mother has the alleles A and O (AO), her blood group will be A because the A allele is dominant. If the father has two O alleles (OO), he has the blood group O. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 14 KLUTSEY  Blood Group For each child that couple has, each parent will pass on one or the other of those two alleles. This means that each one of their children has a 50 per cent chance of having blood group A (AO) and a 50 per cent chance of having blood group O (OO), depending on which alleles they inherit. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 15 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 16 KLUTSEY  Pattern of Genetic Inheritance Autosomal dominant – where the gene for a trait or condition is dominant, and is on a non-sex chromosome. Autosomal recessive – where the gene for a trait or condition is recessive, and is on a non-sex chromosome. X-linked dominant – where the gene for a trait or condition is dominant, and is on the X-chromosome. X-linked recessive – where the gene for a trait or condition is recessive, and is on the X-chromosome. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 17 KLUTSEY  Pattern of Genetic Inheritance Y-linked dominant – where the gene for a trait or condition is dominant on the Y-chromosome. Y-linked recessive – where the gene for a trait or condition is recessive on the Y-chromosome. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 18 KLUTSEY  Gene Mutation A gene mutation is a change in one or more genes. It is an alteration in the genetic material (the genome) of a cell of a living organism that can be transmitted to the cell’s or the offspring. Some mutations can lead to genetic disorders or illnesses. There are hundreds of diseases caused by mutations in a single gene. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 19 KLUTSEY Inherited Disorders Inherited Disorders Sex linked Autosomal disorders disorders Genetic Chromosomal Genetic Chromosomal disorders disorders disorders disorders MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 20 KLUTSEY  Sex-linked Disorders They involve the sex chromosome number 23 and occurs via dominant-recessive patterns. A recessive gene on the X chromosome is more likely to be expressed as the phenotype in males because the Y chromosome has no allele that might contract the gene. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 21 KLUTSEY  Autosomal Disorders They are caused by mutations in genes on the autosomes, or numbered chromosomes. Individuals have two copies (alleles) of every autosomal gene, one inherited from each parent. Autosomal dominant disorders are those that result from a mutation in one copy of the gene. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 22 KLUTSEY  Genetic or Chromosomal Disorders Genetic Disorders: These are abnormalities in chromosomes inherited from one or both parents produces diseases in offspring Chromosomal Disorders: These are abnormality of chromosome numbers or structure resulting from an error in cell division MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 23 KLUTSEY  Genetic Sex-Linked Disorders 1. Colour Blindness A recessive sex-linked disorder characterised by the inability to distinguish between red and green colours due to a defect of the retina. Dominant gene which permits for color vision is situated on the X chromosome. The Y chromosome does not have this gene. Male’s will be color blind if the X chromosome of the male gene has the gene for color blindness. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 24 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 25 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 26 KLUTSEY  Genetic Sex-Linked Disorders 2. Hemophilia A and B or Bleeder’s Disease A recessive sex-linked disorder carried on the X-chromosome which results in the inability of the blood to clot Prevalent in males (Occurs in 1 in 5000 males) Can lead to death from internal bleeding Inheritance follows the same pattern as color blindness MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 27 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 28 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 29 KLUTSEY  Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders 1. Fragile X Syndrome Results from the breakage of the tip of an X chromosome Results in severe mental retardation, speech defects and severe deficits in interpersonal interaction Usually, males are more severely affected by this disorder than females. Occurs in 1 out of 1200 males and 1 out of 2500 females MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 30 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 31 KLUTSEY  Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders 2. Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) A condition in males characterized by an extra X chromosome in most of their cells instead of the normal XY pattern. Characteristics of such males: Relatively high pitched voices, feminine contours, breast enlargement, little facial or body hair, sterile, small testes, an inch taller than the average male, likely to be overweight, learning difficulties as children MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 32 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 33 KLUTSEY  Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders 3. Super Male Syndrome (XYY) A defect which occurs in males where they inherit an extra Y chromosome Characteristics of such males include: Height of above 6ft., slender during adolescence, severe facial acne, poor co-ordination Defect occurs in between 1 in 900 births or as rare as 1 in 1500 or 2000 MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 34 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 35 KLUTSEY  Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders 4. Super Female/Triple X Syndrome (XXX) or Trisomy 47 Females with the defect inherit 3 or X chromosomes. Characteristics of such females: An inch taller than the average female, with long legs and slender torso, emotionally immature for size during childhood. Usually fertile but may have slight learning difficulties and usually in the low range of normal intelligence MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 36 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 37 KLUTSEY  Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders 5. Turner’s Syndrome (XO) A genetic disease caused by abnormal sex chromosomes which occurs in females who inherit 1 X chromosome instead of 2. Characteristics: Short in stature, webbed necks, small jaws and high arched palates, widely spaced breasts, broad shield shaped chests, turned elbows, ovaries do not develop normally and do not ovulate, slight mental retardation in some individuals. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 38 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 39 KLUTSEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 1. Huntington Disease A dominant gene on chromosome 4 is responsible for the disorder Defect manifests at the age of 35 Defect causes the degeneration of neurons producing dementia and random jerking movements Death comes on an average of 12 years after the onset MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 40 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 41 KLUTSEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 2. Phenylketonuria (PKA) A recessive disorder that occurs in about 1 of 10,000 people. A defective gene on chromosome 12 is responsible. Children with PKU are unable to metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid causing a build-up in the body leading to brain damage PKU can lead to intellectual disability, seizures, behavioral problems, and mental disorders. It may also result in a musty smell and lighter skin. Treatment is available and children can develop average intelligence. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 42 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 43 KLUTSEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 3. Rhesus factor (Rh) incompatibility Rh factor is either positive (present) or negative (absent) Rh factor is only significant with respect to pregnancies when an Rh+ child is born to an Rh- mother predisposing her to Rh disease If the blood of the Rh+ child’s blood crosses into mother’s blood during pregnancy, labor or delivery the mothers body produces antibodies to attack the baby’s blood which is foreign to her body MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 44 KLUTSEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders The immune response of the mother to the baby’s blood results in the break down of the baby’s red blood cells The result of the incompatibility doesn’t affect the health of the mother, but the child may suffer complications such as jaundice, anemia, brain or heart damage or death in severe cases MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 45 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 46 KLUTSEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 4. Sickle Cell Disease It is a genetic condition in which red blood cells are not shaped as they should be. Caused by mutation in a gene on chromosome 11. Red blood cells look like round discs but in sickle cell disease, they're shaped like sickles, or crescent moons, instead. These sickle shaped cells get stuck together and block small blood vessels. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 47 KLUTSEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders Symptoms include: Anemia: Sickle cells break apart easily and die, leaving you with too few red blood cells. Episodes of pain: Periodic episodes of pain, called pain crises, are a major symptom of sickle cell anemia. Swelling of hands and feet A child can only have sickle cell disease if they inherit sickling genes from either parents in an autosomal recessive manner. The main sickling genotypes are AA, AS, SS, CC, AC and SC. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 48 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 49 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 50 KLUTSEY  Genetic Autosomal Disorders 2. Albinism Albinism results in little or no production of the pigment melanin, which determines the color of the skin, hair and eyes. It is caused by mutations in one of several genes, and most types are inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. Different types of albinism can occur, based mainly on which gene mutation caused the disorder. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 51 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 52 KLUTSEY  Chromosomal Autosomal Disorders 1. Down Syndrome/Trisomy 21 A chromosomal disorder characterized by features such as flat facial features, small head and ears, short neck, bulging tongue, eyes that slant upward, atypically shaped ears, poor muscle tone. Caused by a duplication or an extra copy of their 21st chromosome MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 53 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 54 KLUTSEY  Environmental Threats Harmful substances such as drugs or radiation that invade the womb and result in birth defects are called teratogens. The term teratogen refers to any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period. Scientists chose this label (from the Greek word “teras” meaning “malformation”) because they first learned about harmful prenatal influences from cases in which babies had been profoundly damaged. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 55 KLUTSEY  Environmental Threats Teratogens are especially damaging in the embryonic stage because it is a critical period in prenatal development. But the harm done by teratogens is not always simple and straightforward. It depends on the following factors: Dose: As we discuss particular teratogens, you will see that larger doses over longer time periods usually have more negative effects. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 56 KLUTSEY  Environmental Threats Heredity: The genetic makeup of the mother and the developing organism plays an important role. Some individuals are better able than others to withstand harmful environments. Other negative influences. The presence of several negative factors at once, such as additional teratogens, poor nutrition, and lack of medical care, can worsen the impact of a single harmful agent. Age: The effects of teratogens vary with the age of the organism at time of exposure. To understand this last idea, think of the sensitive or critical period concept. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 57 KLUTSEY  Examples of Environmental Threats Prescription and Non-prescription Drugs Illegal Drugs Tobacco Alcohol Radiation Environmental Pollution from chemicals (Mercury, Lead, Mercury, Pesticides, Carbon monoxide ) Maternal Disease (Syphilis, Rubella, STD’s, HIV/AIDs) MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 58 KLUTSEY  Examples of Environmental Threats Other Maternal Factors Exercise Nutrition Drugs Poverty Emotional state MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 59 KLUTSEY  Alcohol Exposure to alcohol can result in varied abnormalities in childhood and later years. A child exposed to alcohol in the womb can either have: i. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), ii. Partial fetal alcohol syndrome (p-FAS), and iii. Alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND) MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 60 KLUTSEY  Fetal Alcohol Syndrome It encompasses a range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), distinguished by (a) slow physical growth (b) facial abnormalities (short eyelid openings; a thin upper lip; a smooth or flattened philtrum) (c) brain injury resulting in small head, memory problems, language problems, overactivity, challenged with reasoning, motor coordination, or social skills. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 61 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 62 KLUTSEY Educational Implications MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/9/2022 63 KLUTSEY 8/9/2022 MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY 64  EDC 241 PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING 18/08/2022 MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY 1 WEEK 4 – PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEV’T Periods of Development Physical Development in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence Weight and height increase, reflexes, motor skills, nutrition/malnutrition, play, puberty. Cognitive Development Piaget vs. Vygotsky’s theory of Cognitive development MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 2 KLUTSEY  Periods of Development Infancy spans the first year; toddlerhood spans the second, during which children take their first independent steps, marking a shift to greater autonomy. Childhood: From 2 to 11 years. The body becomes longer and leaner, motor skills are refined, and children become more self- controlled and self-sufficient. Children learn about the wider world and master new responsibilities that increasingly resemble those they will perform as adults. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 3 KLUTSEY  Periods of Development Adolescence: From 11 to 18 years. This period initiates the transition to adulthood. Puberty leads to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 4 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Growth is so rapid and the consequences of neglect are so severe that gains are closely monitored. Newborns gain an ounce a day for several months. Birthweight typically doubles by 4 months and triples by a year. An average 7-pound newborn will be 21 pounds at 12 months (9,52kg up from 3.17 kg at birth). Physical growth in the second year is slower but still rapid. By 24 months, most children weigh almost 28 pounds (13 kilograms). MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 5 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Newborns also grow in height—from about 20 inches at birth to about 34 inches at age 2 (from 51 to 86 centimeters). Each of these numbers is a norm, which is a standard, for a particular population. Genetic diversity can allow for healthy newborns from other continent to be smaller or larger than these norms. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 6 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Motor skills It is the learned abilities to move some part of the body, in actions ranging from a large leap to a flicker of the eyelid. (The word motor here refers to movement of muscles.) Motor skills start with the newborn making reflexes A reflex is an involuntary or automatic, action that your body does in response to something — without you even having to think about it. You don't decide to kick your leg, it just kicks MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 7 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Reflexes that maintain oxygen supply. The breathing reflex begins even before the umbilical cord, with its supply of oxygen, is cut. Others are reflexive hiccups and sneezes, as well as thrashing (moving the arms and legs about) to escape something that covers the face. Reflexes that maintain constant body temperature. When infants are cold, they cry, shiver, and tuck their legs close to their bodies. When they are hot, they try to push away blankets and then stay still. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 8 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Reflexes that manage feeding. The sucking reflex causes newborns to suck anything that touches their lips—fingers, toes, blankets, and rattles, as well as natural and artificial nipples of various textures and shapes. In the rooting reflex, babies turn their mouths toward anything that brushes against their cheeks—a reflexive search for a nipple— and start to suck. Swallowing also aids feeding, as does crying when the stomach is empty and spitting up when too much is swallowed quickly. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 9 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Babinski reflex. When a newborn’s feet are stroked, the toes fan upward. Stepping reflex. When newborns are held upright, feet touching a flat surface, they move their legs as if to walk. Swimming reflex. When held horizontally on their stomachs, newborns stretch out their arms and legs. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 10 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Palmar grasping reflex. When something touches the palms, newborns grip it tightly. Moro reflex. When someone bangs on the table they are lying on, newborns fling their arms out and then bring them together on their chests, crying with wide open eyes. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 11 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 12 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Fine Motor Skills Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin. (The word fine here means “small.”) The most valued fine motor skills are finger movements, enabling humans to write, draw, type, tie, and so on. Movements of the tongue, jaw, lips, teeth, and toes are fine movements, too. Usually mouth skills precede hand skills by many months MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 13 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Gross Motor Skills Physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping. (The word gross here means “big.”) They in a cephalocaudal (head-down) and proximodistal (center- out) direction. Supported sitting- 3 moths Unsupported sitting- 6 months Crawling- 8 to 10 months Standing and walking- 1 year and above MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 14 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Nutrition and Malnutrition To ensure optimum growth, newborns need to be well breastfed. The WHO recommends 6 months exclusive breastfeeding. Benefits for Baby Balance of nutrition (fat, protein, etc.) adjusts to age of baby Breast milk has micronutrients not found in formula MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 15 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Less infant illness, including allergies, ear infections, stomach upsets Less childhood asthma and better vision Less adult illness, including diabetes, cancer, heart disease Protection against many childhood diseases, since breast milk contains antibodies from the mother MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 16 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Benefits for Mother Easier bonding with baby Reduced risk of breast cancer and osteoporosis Natural contraception (with exclusive breast-feeding, for several months) Satisfaction of meeting infant’s basic need MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 17 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Malnutrition: Occurs when the child or newborn is not well fed. The child lacks nutrients in the right proportions. Example of malnutrition include: Protein-calorie malnutrition: A condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food. This can result in illness, severe weight loss, and even death. Stunting: The failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 18 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Infancy Wasting: The tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition. Marasmus: A disease of severe protein-calorie malnutrition during early infancy, in which growth stops, body tissues waste away, and the infant eventually dies. Kwashiorkor: A disease of chronic malnutrition in which a protein- calorie deficiency makes a child more vulnerable to other diseases, such as measles, diarrhea, and influenza. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 19 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Childhood Mastery of gross and fine motor skills results not only from body growth and maturation but also from extensive, active play. Adults need to make sure children have a safe space to play, with ample time, appropriate equipment, and active playmates. “Safe space to play” cannot be taken for granted because the environment is the third teacher. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 20 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Childhood The environment has the power to enhance children’s sense of wonder and capacity for learning” Good nutrition needed for healthy childhood development. Appetite decreases between ages 2 and 6 because young children naturally grow more slowly than they did as infants. Moreover, if children playless outside, they burn fewer calories. Children learn self help skills such as becoming self-sufficient at dressing and feeding and mastering shoe tying skills MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 21 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Childhood The child also learns to draw and write. They scribble, colour pictures at 3-4 years and are able make more realistic drawing at 6. Beyond the sheer fun of playing, the benefits of physical activity— especially games with rules, which children now can follow—last a lifetime. Exercise advances physical, emotional, and mental health. Exercise improves academic achievement. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 22 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Adolescence One of the major physical changes that occur in adolescence is the onset of puberty Puberty: The time at the end of childhood between the first onrush of growth hormones and full adult size. Puberty usually lasts three to five years. Many more years are required to achieve psychosocial maturity Different changes occur for both boys and girls. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 23 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Adolescence Menarche: A girl’s first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation. Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche. Spermarche: A boy’s first ejaculation of sperm. Erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production. Spermarche may occur during sleep (in a “wet dream”) or via direct stimulation. These changes are made possible by hormones MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 24 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Adolescence Signs of Puberty in Boys Testicles get bigger and the scrotum begins to thin and redden Pubic hair also starts to appear at the base of the penis and underarm hair starts to grow Breasts can swell slightly temporarily – this is normal and not the same as "man-boobs" MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 25 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Adolescence Boys start to sweat more Boys may have "wet dreams" (involuntary ejaculations of semen as they sleep) Their voice "breaks" and gets permanently deeper – for a while, a boy might find his voice goes very deep one minute and very high the next MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 26 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Adolescence Signs Of Puberty In Girls Breasts begin to develop and grows larger in size. Pubic hair also starts to grow, and some girls may notice more hair on their legs and arms. Girls usually have their first period Pubic hair becomes coarser and curlier Underarm hair begins to grow – some girls also have hair in other parts of their body, such as their top lip, and this is completely normal 18/08/2022 MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 27 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Adolescence Girls start to sweat more Girls have a white vaginal discharge Girls often get acne – a skin condition that shows up as different types of spots, including whiteheads, blackheads and pus-filled spots called pustules Most girls gain weight (which is normal) as their body shape changes – girls develop more body fat along their upper arms, thighs and upper back; their hips grow rounder and their waist gets narrower MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 28 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 29 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Adolescence Though these changes occur for both boys ang girls, there are variations in onset and duration which may result from the following Genetic: African Americans reach puberty, on average, about seven months earlier than European or Hispanic Americans; Chinese Americans average several months later. Gender: In height, the average girl is two years ahead of the average boy: The female height spurt occurs before menarche, whereas for boys the increase in height is relatively late, after spermarche MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 30 KLUTSEY  Physical Development in Adolescence Nutrition: Heavy girls reach menarche years earlier than malnourished ones do. Stress: Stress hastens the hormonal onset of puberty, especially if a child’s parents are sick, drug-addicted, or divorced, or if the neighborhood is violent and impoverished. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 31 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development His theory suggests that intelligence changes as children grow and that move through four different stages of mental development. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 18-24 months Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years Concrete operational stage: 7 to 11 years Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 32 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 33 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. The sequence of the stages is universal across cultures and follow the same invariant (unchanging) order. All children go through the same stages in the same order (but not all at the same rate) MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 34 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Stage 1- Sensorimotor intelligence Piaget’s term for the way infants think—by using their senses and motor skills—during the first period of cognitive development. Stage One (birth to 1 month) Reflexes: sucking, grasping, staring, listening Stage Two (1–4 months) The first acquired adaptations: accommodation and coordination of reflexes MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 35 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Stage Three (4–8 months) Making interesting sights last: responding to people and objects e.g, clapping hands when mother says child’s name Stage Four (8–12 months) New adaptation and anticipation: becoming more deliberate and purposeful in responding to people and objects MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 36 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Stage Five (12–18 months) New means through active experimentation: experimentation and creativity in the actions of the “little scientist” e. g., putting a teddy bear in the toilet and flushing it. Stage Six (18–24 months) New means through mental combinations: thinking before doing, new ways of achieving a goal without resorting to trial and error Object permanence The realization that objects (including people) still exist even if they can no longer be seen, touched, or heard. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 37 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 38 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Stage 2 - Preoperational Thought Preoperational intelligence is the second of Piaget’s four periods of cognitive development. He used the prefix pre- because children do not yet use logical operations (reasoning processes) Language skills enables symbolic thought- when an object or word can stand for something else, including something out of sight or imagined. Words are used to symbolize an object or action; a child can talk about a dog without seeing the actual dog. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 39 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 40 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Symbolic thought helps explain animism, the belief of many young children that natural objects (such as a tree or a cloud) are alive and that nonhuman animals have the same characteristics as the child. Many children’s stories include animals or objects that talk and listen Centration is the tendency to focus (to center) on only one aspect of a situation. Young children may, for example, insist that Daddy is a father, not a brother, because they center on the role that he fills for them. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 41 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development The daddy example illustrates a particular type of centration that Piaget called egocentrism—literally, “self- centeredness.” Egocentrism: Piaget’s term for children’s tendency to think about other people and their own experiences as if everything revolves around them. Focus on appearance- A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child assumes that the visible appearance of someone or something is also their essence. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 42 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Static reasoning- A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be. Irreversibility- In preoperational thought, the idea that change is permanent, that nothing can be restored to the way it was before a change occurred. Conservation- The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) even when its appearance changes. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 43 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Stage 3 - Concrete operational thought Piaget’s term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions. Classification- The logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic they have in common. Seriation-The concept that things can be arranged in a logical series, such as the number series or the alphabet. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 44 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Stage 4- Formal Operational Thought Or Intelligence Adolescents move past concrete operational thinking and consider abstractions. Jean Piaget described a shift to formal operational thought, including “assumptions that have no necessary relation to reality” (Piaget, 1950/2010, p. 148). Adolescent egocentrism: a characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people to believe in their own uniqueness, and to imagine that other people are also focused on them. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 45 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 46 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Personal fable: The belief that one’s own emotions, experiences, and destiny are unique, more wonderful or awful than anyone else’s. Invincibility fable: The fantasy that a person cannot be harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving. Imaginary audience: The other people who, in an adolescent’s egocentric belief, watch his or her appearance, ideas, and behavior. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 47 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Egocentrism can coexist with more logical and abstract intelligence Hypothetical thought: Reasoning that includes propositions and possibilities that do not reflect reality. Deductive reasoning: Reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, through logical steps, to figure out (deduce) specifics. (Also called top-down reasoning.) Inductive reasoning: Reasoning from specific experiences or facts to reach (induce) a general conclusion. (Also called bottom-up reasoning.) MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 48 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 49 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Vygotsky: Social Learning Vygotsky emphasized another side of early cognition, the social aspects. He stressed the power of culture, Learning is not done in isolation; according to many contemporary educators, it depends on joint engagement. Mentor- Someone who teaches or guides someone else, helping a learner master a skill or body of knowledge. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 50 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 51 KLUTSEY  Cognitive Development Zone of proximal development (ZPD)- In sociocultural theory, a metaphorical area, or “zone,” surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close (“proximal”) to acquiring but cannot yet master without help. Scaffolding- Temporary support that is tailored to a learner’s needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner take the next MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 52 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 53 KLUTSEY EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 54 KLUTSEY  MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 18/08/2022 55 KLUTSEY  EDC 241 PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING 8/18/2022 MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY 1  Week 5 – Socioemotional and Moral Dev’t Socioemotional development in infancy, childhood and adolescence Erik Erikson theory of psychosocial development Moral development in infancy, childhood and adolescence Piaget’s theory of moral development Kohlberg’s theory of moral development Educational Implications. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 2 KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development Infancy: Early Emotions- happiness, sadness, anger, fear Social smile: A smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in full-term infants about 6 weeks after birth. Separation anxiety: Distress when a familiar caregiver or loved one leaves; most obvious between 9 and 14 months. Stranger wariness: An infant’s expression of concern—a quiet stare while clinging to a familiar person, or a look of fear—when a stranger appears. 8/18/2022 MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 3 KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development Self-awareness: A person’s realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. Attachment: According to Ainsworth, “an affectional tie” that an infant forms with a caregiver—a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 4 KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development Infants show their attachment through i. Proximity-seeking (such as approaching and following their caregivers) and through ii. Contact-maintaining (such as touching, snuggling, and holding). MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 5 KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development Secure attachment: A relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver. Insecure-avoidant attachment: A pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the, caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 6 KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment: A pattern of attachment in which an infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver, such infants both resist and seek contact on reunion. Disorganized attachment: A type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 7 KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development Childhood- Children develop socioemotionally through play Pretend Play: This the play that often occurs when a child is alone Social Play: This the play that occurs with playmates. Rough-and-tumble play- Play that seems to be rough, as in play wrestling or chasing, but in which there is no intent to harm. Sociodramatic play-Pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in plots or roles that they create MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 8 KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development Adolescence - Relationships Adolescence is often characterized as a time when children distance themselves from their elders. Parent–adolescent relationships are pivotal, not always peaceful (Laursen & Collins, 2009) and disputes are common because the drive for independence. Parental friendship and monitoring is needed to guide adolescents and help them make the right choices. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 9 KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development Parental monitoring: Parents’ ongoing awareness of what their children are doing, where, and with whom. Adolescents rely on peers to help them navigate the physical changes of puberty, the intellectual challenges of high school, and the social changes of leaving childhood. Peer relationships can help adolescents cultivate either good or bad behaviours MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 10 KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development Peer pressure: When people of the same age group encourage particular behavior, dress, and attitude. This is usually considered negative, when peers encourage behavior that is contrary to norms or morals, but can also be positive Of late it is very common to see adolescents in romantic relationships with early sexual debuts MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 11 KLUTSEY  Socioemotional Development Many adolescents have strong sexual urges but minimal logic about pregnancy and disease and this requires the need for extensive sex education; first from the family, school and other social institutions MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 12 KLUTSEY Erik Erikson – Psychosocial Stages of Dev’t Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½ 2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5 4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 – 12 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18 MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 13 KLUTSEY  Erik Erikson – Psychosocial Stages of Dev’t Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+ MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 14 KLUTSEY  Trust vs. Mistrust This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 15 KLUTSEY  Trust vs. Mistrust If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened. If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 16 KLUTSEY  Autonomy vs. Shame This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 17 KLUTSEY  Initiative vs. Guilt During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction. it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt 8/18/2022 MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. KLUTSEY 18  Initiative vs. Guilt During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction. It is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 19 KLUTSEY  Industry vs. Inferiority Occurs between ages of five and twelve. The child forms friendship with peers and now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 20 KLUTSEY  Industry vs. Inferiority If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential. Adolescence is often understood as a search for a consistent understanding of oneself. Self-expression and self-concept become increasingly important at puberty. Each young person wants to know, “Who am I?” MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 21 KLUTSEY  Identity vs. Role Confusion This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 22 KLUTSEY  Identity vs. Role Confusion Identity achievement: Erikson’s term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans. This includes many identities—religions, sexual-gender, political- ethnic, and vocational. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 23 KLUTSEY  Identity vs. Role Confusion Role confusion: A situation in which people do not seem to know or care about their identity. (Sometimes called identity diffusion.) Foreclosure: Erikson’s term for premature identity formation, when a person adopts parents’ or society’s roles and values wholesale, without questioning or analysis. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 24 KLUTSEY  Moral Development The term moral comes from the Latin word “mores” meaning manners or pattern of behaviour that conform to the standard of a group or society. Morality refers to a sense of ethics of right or wrong. Moral development therefore is a process whereby individuals especially children come to adopt and internalized what is right or wrong in their society MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 25 KLUTSEY  Moral Development Moral development is the gradual development of an individuals concept of right or wrong – conscious, religious values, social attitudes and certain behaviour. Moral development involves changes in thoughts, feelings and behaviours regarding standards of right and wrong. Moral development involves an interpersonal and intrapersonal dimension. MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 26 KLUTSEY  Moral Development Interpersonal is about our view of right or wrong based on what others say in the environment. Intrapersonal is about our view of right or wrong based on personalized convictions and philosophies. Moral development involves four questions MRS. AMMAH, MS. EGGLEY, MR. AMOAKO, DR. MAHAMA, MS. 8/18/2022 27 KLUTSEY  Moral Development How do individuals reason or think about moral decisions? How do individuals actual