Introduction to Psychology PDF

Introduction to Psychology Unit I - Parts 1 and 2 Unit I - Part 1 August 20, 2024 The Science of Psychology 1. Preview Psychology is the scientific study of the hu...

Introduction to Psychology Unit I - Parts 1 and 2 Unit I - Part 1 August 20, 2024 The Science of Psychology 1. Preview Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. But it is not only for the human mind, but also for the animal mind and behavior. 2. Enduring Issues in Psychology Theorists and Psychologists have been conceptualizing and trying to figure out what’s the rationale behind behavior. Nature-Nurture Some of the theories emphasize that behind a person’s behavior and action is that they are a product of genetics. Some would prove that it’s not only genetics predisposition that makes a person behave or act a certain way, but it's also stemming from their life experiences. Stability-Change Some would believe that behavior patterns are in fact permanent, that they would endure through the lifespan development of a person. However, other theorists would think that behaviors are transient, therefore they are changing and people would change over time, depending on the situation, depending on their life experiences. Diversity-Universality Speaks about how people could be similar in such a way and despite their similarities, how can their personalities and behavior be so distinct from one another. Mind-Body Where psychologists and theories try to identify the relationship that exists between the mind and the body. Such that they believe that the mind or our mindset cognition contributes to our behavior.  3. Definition of Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology does not only focus on the aspect of a human being, but it can also focus on the behavior and mental processes of an animal / animals. In the earlier years, some people would think that psychology is the study of weird people and eccentric behaviors. Yes, it could be true, but over the years as Psychology expanded and became scientific in nature, people or scientists attempted to understand how people think, feel, and act in their everyday life. In order to examine people’s cognition and behavior, they try to observe those outward and overt actions, as well as their mental processes. Mental processes are in fact, innate or covert activity of the mind, thinking and feelings processes. While the behavior itself can be directly observed thru the overt actions or reactions of the behavior. Psychology is scientific because we do not just rest on speculation or assumptions, or even intuition. We anchor every explanation to a theoretical foundation to help us comprehend the complexity of human behavior and mental processes. 4. Importance of Psychology Helps you understand why people and even animals behave the way they do. Allows you to understand yourself and your reaction or responses to other people. Might as well help us understand other people’s reaction to us. Makes you understand how your brain and body are connected to each other. Physiologically, our neurotransmitters are in fact contributing factors to our mood, behavior and a sense of happiness. 5. Goals of Psychology We do not study psychology just to gain information. Having a sum of information can help us, but we must study it in order to help people, to reach out to the populace. One of the goals of Psychology is to help us understand what is happening to the person. 1. Describe (What is happening?) We need to observe and note those overt behaviors. We need to understand what has happened to the person, where it happens, to whom it happens, and under what event that incident happened.  2. Explain (Why is it happening?) After coming up with a description, this allows us to explain the rationale behind those behaviors. It allows us to explain why that particular behavior is happening. This gives us an avenue to come up with a tentative explanation in order to understand human behavior. Explanation is usually anchored to a strong theoretical framework. This theory will serve as a support system that we can anchor with the observation and description. 3. Predict (When will it happen again?) Predict the likelihood for that behavior to occur again. This gives us a chance to determine whether or not that particular behavior or mental processes will happen again in the future. It also allows us to identify whether or not we could facilitate change or modification in human behavior. 4. Control (How can it be changed?) Given that we can predict the likelihood for the behavior to happen, we can use it to control behavior. This is where we change or help the person transition from a maladaptive behavior or mental processes to a more healthy or helpful one. 6. Influential Approaches to Psychology The Growth of Psychology 1. William Wundt Mnemonic: WinWin / WoWoWin Epithet / Title: “Father of Experimental Psychology” Feats / Contribution: Established the 1st Psychological laboratory at University of Leipzig, Germany (1879) Description: He attempted to study or apply scientific principles to human behavior. Work: He conducted an experiment called “Objective Introspection,” where he objectively examines one’s thoughts and mental activities. Others: ○ In that lab, students were taught to study the structure of the human mind.  ○ Given the structure of the human mind, he believed that consciousness could be broken down into bits of information. Such that it could be classified into thoughts, experiences, emotions and other basic elements. 2. Granville Stanley Hall Mnemonic: Go to South Hall Epithet / Title: 1st American with PhD in Psychology Feats / Contributions: ○ Studied with Wundt (classmate) ○ Established the 1st Psychological laboratory at Johns Hopkins University, USA (1883) Description: Founded American Psychological Association (APA) and served as its first president (1892) 3. Edward Titchener: Structuralism Mnemonic: Eastern Tarlac Epithet / Title: “Coined the Term “Structuralism” Feats/ Contributions: Expanded on WW’s idea, wherein he called their idea, Structuralism. Description: ○ Focus on the study on the structure of the mind. ○ Experiences could be broken down into individual emotions, sensations, perceptions, and more. ○ Consciousness could be broken down into basic elements. ○ Those basic elements are important in one’s mental life. Without it, one would cease to exist. ○ In order for a person to understand who they are or to be in connection with their consciousness, they need to go through the process of objective introspection. ○ Back then, O.I. was a form of research method wherein we come up with a logical explanation to understand one’s consciousness or the function of our consciousness. 4. William James: Functionalism Mnemonic: Walking and Jogging Epithet / Title: “Opposer to Structuralism” Description:  ○ The scientific study of consciousness is not possible because conscious ideas are ever-changing. ○ Importance of consciousness to everyday life rather than just its analysis. ○ They’re trying to figure out an explanation why people behave the way they do. ○ Emphasis on and focus on how the mind allows people to function in the real-world, how people work, play, and adapt to their surroundings. ○ How do people adapt to the changing world? How do their mindset or mental processes work, given they are exposed to different environmental circumstances. How do they cope up? How do they change? ○ Emphasis on the analysis on one’s mental phase, rather than plainly describing the basic elements of our consciousness, they attempt to analyze the mental state and behaviors in terms of its purposes. ○ Why are we behaving this way? ○ Talks about the capability of the human mind. 5. Gestalt Psychology Proponents: Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka Description: ○ German for “configuration” or “form” ○ Organization of mental processes ○ “Whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” ○ Believes that we cannot simply understand human behavior and mental processes by focusing on the basic elements or factors separately. ○ Understanding the whole aspect of human behavior is the key picture to understanding people. 6. Psychodynamic / Psychoanalytic Proponents: Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Karent Horney Description: ○ Behavior results from forces at work within the individual, often at an unconscious level. ○ Id, Ego & Superego ○ We are unaware of what's happening to us and the motivating force that drives us are those forces that have been repressed in the unconscious.  ○ The experiences that we have that are unpleasant or the desires that we do not show to other people, are the ones that we hide, and these are the forces that drive us or compel us to behave a certain way. 7. Behaviorism Proponents: Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, John B. Watson Description: ○ Disagree with the Psychoanalytic, given that the consciousness processes cannot be conceptualized, measured or have any evidence of it. ○ Saw introspection as “unscientific” ○ Focuses only on observable (overt) behaviors ○ Behaviorism is the science of behavior ○ Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning ○ B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning ○ What triggers the specific behavior responses? According to them, there’s a particular stimulus at all times. A stimulus or a trigger contributing to a response. ○ Those responses are overt, meaning they are observable. ○ Given they are observable, they become quantifiable, therefore there is more evidence given, and it becomes more scientific in nature. ○ The proponents came up with experiments to understand how behavior can be learned and unlearned, conditioned and unconditioned. How people constantly engage in behavior action because they feel rewarded or how they can avoid certain actions because they avoid to be punished. 7. Psychology’s 7 Modern Perspectives Psychology tells us that there are many ways to think about human behavior. Psychologists use a variety of approaches or perspectives to explain why people think and act the way they do. These perspectives are used to explain all of human behavior, like why do some people enjoy extreme activities? Why do people develop phobias? And even why do people feel certain emotions, like sadness or anger? Reminder, a certain behavior can be perceived differently depending on the perspective used by the psychologists. 1. Behavioral Perspective (Conditioning) Proponents are Watson, Pavlov, Skinner  It explains human behavior in terms of conditioning and reinforcement. It focuses on how we learn certain behaviors. Situation: Think about humans as passive animals, like a dog on standby, only responding to simple environmental stimuli. The behavioral perspective argues that we are more likely to do things because of positive outcomes, and less likely to do things because of negative ones. From this perspective, there really is no difference between a dog being rewarded with a treat for good behavior, and a student being rewarded with verbal praise for good behavior. A behaviorist may argue that a person was conditioned to fear public speaking because they associate this experience with negative responses, like the audience chuckling after misspeaking. People may avoid public speaking for fear of embarrassment, which in this case is a form of punishment. 2. Cognitive Perspective (Problem-solving) Proponent is Piaget The cognitive perspective is a counterargument to behaviorism. This approach contends that our behavior is influenced by more than simple rewards and punishments; rather, our behavior is influenced by how we think and interpret a situation. We are not just headlines zombies walking around; instead, we make decisions based on our interpretation of a situation. Situation: A cognitive theorist may argue a person has a fear of public speaking because of irrational or obsessive thoughts. Thought like, “What if they see my fall?” “What if my zipper is open?” “What if they see my sweating?” This is a constant worrier, a critic of themselves. 3. Psychodynamic (Unconscious) Proponent is Sigmund Freud The psychodynamic perspective is one of the most controversial perspectives, but also one of the most fascinating. One of the oldest. The unconscious mind controls our thoughts and actions. Like an iceberg, our behavior is guided by a large part of our mind we cannot see or control.  Our unconscious mind is filled with memories from our childhood that are too traumatic or distressing to think about so we repress them or “push them down” into the abyss. Our unconscious mind is filled with primitive drives that are in conflict with societal norms and morals. Situation: A psychodynamic theorist may argue a person has a fear of public speaking because of a deeper underlying issue in the unconscious – the fear of rejection. A person may fear public speaking because of a repressed memory of being belittled or rejected by an overbearing parent or teacher. 4. Humanistic (Self-concept) Proponents were Maslow and Rogers It was developed as an alternative to the behavioral and psychodynamic perspectives because it offered more of a positive approach to human behavior. A reason why humanism is often considered as the “third wave.” In this perspective, our behavior is not determined by our past, or simplistic rewards and punishments. Instead, we choose our paths; we make individual choices and strive for personal growth. Quite simply, “the glass is half full, not half empty.” Situation: A humanist may argue that experiencing fear is a motivator. Fear is not seen as a weakness. People purposefully seek out difficult tasks to overcome their fears and triumph over adversity. 5. Biological (Genetics) There is an old saying in psychology, “Everything psychological is simultaneously biological.” The key idea is that biological processes control our thoughts and actions, including hormones, neurotransmitters, and genes. Situation: A psychologist from the biological perspective may focus on the parts of the brain that are key actors in the production of fear and anxiety while public speaking. They may focus on the amygdala, for example, an almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that alerts the rest of the brain and body when a threat is present. A biological psychologist may also focus on what specifically causes physiological changes in the human body, like norepinephrine and cortisol. 6. Sociocultural (Social Norms) Proponents are Vygostky and Bandura It argues that people's thoughts and actions are influenced by cultural factors, like stereotypes, cultural norms, media, and racial differences. Situation: From the sociocultural perspective, fear of public speaking may be caused by cultural norms. Every culture has implicit societal rules, also known as folkways, on eye contact when talking, use of hand gestures, or how much emotion to express in public. Another explanation is that people from individualistic cultures, like North America and Europe, as opposed to collectivist cultures, like Asia, may feel more pressure to succeed on their own. 7. Evolutionary (Natural Selection) Proponent is Charles Darwin Argues that people’s thoughts and actions are advantageous for survival. Situation: Evolutionary psychologists may argue that fear of public speaking is caused by our brain perceiving this event as actual, real-life danger. Our brain interprets public speaking as a life or death situation, same as being chased by a Saber-toothed tiger, sending our body into fight-or-flight mode. Approaches to Psychology reappear in multiple units. The key to understanding them is to look for specific words and apply them to new scenarios. 8. Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specializations Entails people working in the field of Psychology. In our country, they are known as mental health practitioners. These professions entail different training experience and degree courses in order to become qualified. 1. Psychologists Have PhD Focus more on research, teaching, or work in the academe.  Clinical Practitioners, which they can conduct thorough assessments and even provide intervention programs They must also have training such as practicum or internships and require licenses. In this country, it is required for Master’s Degree holders in Clinical Psychology to take up a board exam subject or the board exam. 2. Psychiatrists Medical practitioners Took 4 years Pre-Med, then pursued a 4 year med course, and took up residency in Psychiatry. Specialize in diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. Can allow medical prescription They conduct consultations and prescribe medications Must be licensed physicians 3. Psychiatric Social Workers Trained in areas of social work They have license to practice social work 9. Fields of Psychology Clinical Psychology Focus on the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders through the use of intervention programs. They are not allowed to prescribe medication, as they need to partner up first with a psychiatrist. School and Educational Psychology Examples are guidance counselors. They help students in school to cope up with their academic needs or problems in performance. It also tackles external factors affecting the academic performance of students and the ways to solve it such as counseling services. This type of psychology also helps in career assessment and planning for students in pursuing their college degree. Industrial-Organizational Psychology Use or apply psychology in the workplace. Helps employees and the organization boost their productivity and quality of life. It focuses on well-being and must be preserved. 10. Licenses in Psychology Psychometrician - B.S. Psychologists - M.A., Ph.D., Psy.D. (Clinical, Industrial, or Educational) Psychiatrists - M.D. Psychoanalysts - M.D. or Ph.D. Social Workers (M.S.W.) - LSW Marriage Family Therapists - M.A. Unit I - Part 2 August 21, 2024 1. The 5 Steps of the Scientific Approach Recap: Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of humans and animals. Research must be conducted to support our theories and studies. 1. Particular Topic to Discuss The topic of the research will be one of the aspects on how to conduct the research. In choosing the topic, it can be either something that the researcher is interested about so that the they can have the motivation and attention to do so; or something related to the issues of the society or gaps within the an existing body of knowledge so that the results can be applied in giving solutions or ameliorations. Must be interesting 2. Formulate the Question / Perceiving the Question This is where the researchers identify the variables and formulate questions about them in such a way that it can be used in identifying the objectives or goals of the study, the answers that we want to find out, and the overall research procedure. Must be related to the variables 3. Forming a hypothesis  In forming a hypothesis, this is where the researcher tries to have an educated guess about the relationship between the variables present. Null hypothesis dictates that there is no relationship or difference between the variables Alternative hypothesis states that there is a significant relationship or difference between the variables Must gather and come up with data and evidences to support and prove the hypothesis In gathering the data, it can have the RRL as a support 4. Testing the hypothesis A point in the research method wherein the researcher tries to prove whether the null hypothesis (hypothesis in general) is valid or not based on the existing data. Conducted at the near end of the study where sufficient data and information has been gathered. Our theory or hypothesis must be anchored to a theoretical framework so that it can have a valid basis or explanation for existing. In gathering data, we must conduct tests such as standardized tests. Also called statistical tests or analysis. 5. Drawing Conclusions The researchers draw interpretations from the results, in such a way their kind of relationship or correlation and meaning (what does it further mean) will be stated. Must be aligned with the hypothesis that was proven. 6. Report your Results This is where the researchers will objectively state the findings of the studies. The results can be used in finally answering the research questions. The results must be aligned or be supported by the RRL to give context, basis, and relevance and similarity to other studies. Even though the results are not aligned with the RRL, or it was far from the expectations of the researcher, it must still be presented but we must write down the factors why it occurred that way and present the gaps so that it can be improved in future studies. 2. Methodologies in Gathering Data 1. Naturalistic Observation - Descriptive Method Observe the subjects or participants in their natural habitat Data gathered will be raw, meaning it is objective and no manipulation has occurred. Observer may have bias, which is the tendency of the observer to see what they expect to see. Likewise, this is where the expectations and opinions of the researcher affects the recorded result of the observation, which can be a disadvantage ○ To avoid it, we must list down the research bias or prejudice we have so that our perspective can still be objective. Observers must take into account the observer effect, the tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed. ○ Instances of the observer effect can influence the sample or participant’s availability and presence to decrease (e.g. may run away). ○ To avoid it, the observer must be well hidden and be positioned properly within the surroundings. Researchers may also conduct participant observation, in which they will also become one of the participants that is being observed. ○ The advantage of this technique is that researchers can gather more valuable data and insights that cannot be gathered via note-taking and recording. 2. Laboratory Observation - Descriptive Method Can observe or interview people or animals in an artificial but controlled situation. Safe way of experimenting but it could lead to too much controlling and artificiality which could result in data being too artificial. 3. Case Studies - Descriptive Method Making a thorough, descriptive, and detailed study of one participant we are curious about through an interview. Includes assessments that can support the findings during the interview. May not be applied to the populace since the cases of each person varies.  Phineas Gage 4. Surveys - Descriptive Method Surveys involved asking standardized questionnaires or conducting standardized tests to large groups of people. Respondents may not always tell the truth or remember information correctly. ○ May caused the result in being biased, not enough credibility, or less accuracy (meaning, the results may not on par with the actual population) Its representative is always a sample that comes from a large population or large people ○ A representative sample is a randomly selected sample of participants from a larger population of participants ○ The population is the entire group of people or animals in which a researcher is interested 5. Standardized Tests - Descriptive Method Respondents answer a series of questions Respondent’s score compared with others (norm) Has high reliability and validity, meaning there’s consistency among timelines and is measuring what it is exactly to measure Usually administered uniformly, meaning each section of the test has it own procedure of conducting it Is psychological nature Involves in “what the tests measure and how it is scored” 6. Archival Research - Descriptive Method In lieu of actual behavior Literature, diaries, paintings, movies, etc Identify themes and provides interpretations Is conducted when data about a topic or person of interest is insufficient (alternative method) or when we want to write or study deeply and personally about a person. 7. Correlation Methods A correlation is a measure of the relationship between two or more variables ○ Establishes the degree of relationships between the variables ○ How strong or weak and what is the direction of the variables A correlation coefficient is a number that represents the strength and direction existing between two variables; it is a number derived from the formula for measuring a correlation ○ A positive relationship portrays two variables increase ○ A negative relationship portrays one variable decrease and on variable increase Cannot establish what is the relationship between variables, but it can only dictate if there’s one 8. Experiment A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships ○ Manipulate the IV to see its effect or if it has an effect on DV The Variables Operationalization involves specific description of a variable of interest that allows it to be measured An independent variable is the variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter A dependent variable is the variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the participants in the experiment. The experimental group includes participants in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable, whereas the control group includes participants in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment. ○ Experimental = receives treatment ○ Control group = does not receive treatment Experimental Hazard and Controlling for Effects  This woman suffers from chronic pain. If she were given a new pain-killing drug, the researcher could not be certain that any improvement in her pain was caused by the drug rather than by the woman’s belief that the drug would work. The expectations of any person in an experimental study can affect the outcome of the study, a phenomenon known as the placebo effect. Importance of Randomization Random assignment is the process of assigning participants to the experimental or control groups randomly, so that each participant has an equal chance of being in either group Best way to ensure control over other extraneous variables Ethics of Psychological Research The Nuremberg Code was established in 1947 as a result of medical experiments that had been conducted on thousands of concentration camp prisoners without their consent and when participants were seriously harmed. In the succeeding years, numerous questionable studies still took place, such as the well-known case of The Thalidomide Birth Defects incident in 1950. ○ Henrietta Lacks’s unconsented Immortal Cells in 1951 ○ Mistreated Tuskegee Syphilis Participants from 1932 to 1972 In 1964, the World Medical Association established recommendations for biomedical research and this formed the basis of the good clinical practice guidelines we now use universally. ○ It stated that research in humans should be based on the results of laboratory and animal experimentation first ○ Research protocols should be reviewed by an independent committee prior to commencement ○ Voluntary and informed consent is necessary ○ Research should be conducted by qualified individuals ○ Risks should now outweigh the benefits The Belmont Report was established in 1979, summarizing the ethical principles and guidelines of the commission for protection of human participants of biomedical and behavioral research. ○ Respect for persons ; autonomy and informed consent  ○ Beneficence ; the risks must not outweigh the benefits ○ Justice ; fairness, equality, and equity ○ Research Integrity Ethics in research refers to a set of globally applicable principles that govern the way any research involving interactions between researchers and participants is designed, managed and conducted. ItIncludes living animals or humans, as well as their associated tissue and data. Ethical research requires dignity, rights, safety, privacy and well-being of the participants; be respected, safeguarded, and considered at all times, particularly those from vulnerable groups. Human ethics states that you must minimize harm to participants All research involving people will have a certain amount of risk attached to it. This may be negligible, low, or high levels of risk Animal ethics warrant ethical humane and responsible care and use of animals in research and is founded on the three R’s principle: Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement, which emphasizes considerations around least harm and greatest utility of research animals Throughout the duration of a study, one has an ongoing obligation to the ethics committee to report any variations to protocols being used and to seek permission for each change every time with an amended submission. One is also required to report any issues or side effects that arise The welfare of the participants must be maintained at all costs and all researches conducted must be in the best interest of society Ultimately, it is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that ethical standards must be upheld at all times during the research.