Intro To Psychology PDF

Psychology 100  Sub-Fields of Psychology EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: *Learning/Motivation/Emotion/Sensation/Perception *Cognitive Psychology *Neuroscience/Biological Psychology *Comparative Psychology *Developmental/Life-Span Psychology *Social/Personality Psychology CLINICAL, COUNS...

Psychology 100  Sub-Fields of Psychology EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: *Learning/Motivation/Emotion/Sensation/Perception *Cognitive Psychology *Neuroscience/Biological Psychology *Comparative Psychology *Developmental/Life-Span Psychology *Social/Personality Psychology CLINICAL, COUNSELING, AND HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: *Personnel Psychology & Psychometrics *Organizational Behavior *Consumer Psychology *Engineering Psychology & Human Factors EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: (Research, Training (corporate), School Psychology) Careers in Psychology Careers in Psychology What standards do YOU use to decide if something is “TRUE”? — Can anything EVER be “Proven”? Stop thinking in terms of absolutes & accept the Avoid using the word “Prove” tentative nature of knowledge  What standards do YOU use to decide if something is “TRUE”? — Most people do not make a distinction between “Believing” something & “Knowing” something Principles of Scientific Psychological Thinking — Skepticism (and parsimony!) — Empiricism — Quantitative Thinking — Experimental Thinking — Accept principle of scientific determinism  Benefits of Psychological Thinking — Prevents confusion between observations and inferences — Protects us from intuition & hindsight bias — Become wary of “Bubbapsychology” — Avoid the “Power of the Particular” — Become aware of confirmation bias & illusory correlations What standards do YOU use to decide if something is “TRUE”? — Can anything EVER be “Proven”? Research Methods in Psychology — Correlational Methods ◦ Observation of relationship between two or more variables ◦ Illustrated with scatterplots ◦ Quantified with Correlation Coefficients ◦ Advantages: Efficient; may study problems that can’t be studied experimentally ◦ Disadvantages: Leaves cause-effect relationship ambiguous  Correlational Methods 4.0 3.0 G P A 2.0 1.0 0.0 None Lots Alcohol Consumption The Correlation Coefficient -1.0 +1.0 0 Scatter Plots Scatter Plots Research Methods in Psychology — Experimental Methods ◦ Involves active manipulation of variables to create different conditions – Independent vs. dependent ◦ Experimental Control must be assured; usually handled through random assignment ◦ Validity of experiments – Internal vs. external ◦ Inferential Statistics – How to tell if differences between groups are large enough to matter? ◦ Advantages: Greater control; can infer cause-effect relationships; can be designed to test specific hypotheses ◦ Disadvantages: Limitations (practical & ethical) on independent variables; may be inefficient for collecting large amounts of data Research Methods in Psychology — Other Research techniques: ◦ Quasi-Experimental Designs ◦ Unobtrusive/naturalistic observation ◦ Interviews – impressionistic research ◦ Meta-Analysis  Research Settings — Laboratory Studies ◦ Advantages – Control over situation – Random assignment is possible – Control over independent variable – Sensitive measurement of dependent variable ◦ Disadvantages – Demand Characteristics! – Limitations on possible manipulations – Questions of reality and generalization  Field Studies — Advantages ◦ Minimizes suspicion ◦ Different types of subjects available ◦ Can study more powerful variables — Disadvantages ◦ Lack of control over situation ◦ Random assignment is difficult ◦ May be hard to get pure dependent measures ◦ Often more awkward and costly The Mind-Body Problem (aka, “Mind-Brain” Problem) Monism — Materialism: Everything is Physical — Idealism: Everything is Mental  Dualism — Interactionism: Mind & Body Influence Each Other — Epiphenomenalism: Mental Events are By-Products of Physical Experience — Psychophysical Parallelism: Outside Event causes Mental & Physical Responses, but they are Independent of Each Other — Double Aspectism: Person cannot be divided; Mind & Body do not interact but they cannot be separated — Preestablished Harmony: Mind & Body are different, but are coordinated and synchronized by some external agent (God?) — Occasionalism: Intervening Agent (God) changes one realm following changes in the other  Dominant Views of Mind-Body Problem in Psychology — Experimental Psychology ◦ Epiphenomenalism ◦ Materialistic Monism — Humanistic-Existential Psychology ◦ Interactionism The Architecture of the Human Mind  Perspectives on the “Mind” *The mind is what the brain does. *The mind is not one thing, but rather a collection of things. *The mind has been shaped by the process of natural selection, just as other organs have. *“Consciousness” is a by-product of brain activity, and it is not essential to most functions of the mind. Biology of the Brain & Nervous System — The Structure of the Nervous System — Neurons: The building blocks of the nervous system — The Structure & Function of the Brain Structure of Nervous System Structure of Nervous System Neurons Branching of Neurons Branching of Neurons The Action Potential A Neuron at Rest The Synapse Some Common Neurotransmitters — Acetylcholine — Dopamine — Serotonin — Norepinephrine — GABA ◦ (gamma-amino butyric acid) How do Drugs Work? The Brain Phineas Gage Sub-Cortical Brain Structures Functional Locations in Cortex Language Areas of Brain Hemispheres of the Brain Hemispheres of the Brain Split Brain Surgery Split-Brain Patients — Joe — Vicky Some Psychological Disorders Due to Brain Damage Language Areas of Brain Aphasia - Language Problems — Broca’s Aphasia (Speaking) — Wernicke’s Aphasia (Comprehension) — Alexia (Reading) — Agraphia (Writing) — Anomia (Naming) — Acalculia (Math Operations)  Agnosia - Recognition Problems —Object Agnosia —Amusia (Tones) —Prosopagnosia (Faces) —Movement Agnosia —Astereognosia (Touch) —Neglect Syndrome Kluver-Bucy Syndrome —Hypersexuality —Lack of Emotion —Compulsive Oral Exploration —Psychic Blindness Milner’s Syndrome & Korsakov’s Syndrome —AComplete Inability to transfer New Information into Long- Term Memory ◦ (Clive Wearing) Behaviorism John B. Watson John B. Watson The Psychology of Learning — Habituation The Psychology of Learning — Classical Conditioning  Classical Conditioning  Classical Conditioning Procedures Backward Conditioning Classical Conditioning — The Intensity & Duration of CS & US affect conditioning — All CS’s are NOT equally conditionable ◦ Biological predispositions matter! — Vicarious Classical Conditioning — Application of Classical Conditioning to everyday life: ◦ Food Aversions (Garcia Effect) ◦ Phobias ◦ Sexual Fetishes ◦ Racial Prejudice ◦ Interpersonal Attraction Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life Phobia Formation Classical Conditioning Terminology — Conditioned Inhibition — Second Order Conditioning — Inhibition of Delay — Blocking — Discrimination & Generalization — Extinction — Spontaneous Recovery B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) Pioneered the Concept of Reinforcement Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner Thorndike’s “Law of Effect” — An act may be altered in its strength by its consequences” E.L. Thorndike Thorndike's Puzzle Box The Concept of Reinforcement Shaping of Behavior through Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement — Continuous Reinforcment — Intermittent Reinforcement ◦ Interval Schedules – Fixed Interval (FI) – Variable Interval (VI) ◦ Ratio Schedules – Fixed Ratio (FR) – Variable Ratio (VR) Operant Conditioning Terms: — Discriminative Stimulus — Extinction — Generalization — Superstitious Behavior — Chaining — Secondary Reinforcement — Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning Social Learning Social Learning Insight Learning – The “Ah-Ha” Experience Kohler's Ape Research Problem-Solving through Insight — Studied by “Gestalt Psychologists” ◦ Problems Solved through “Restructuring” — Productive vs. Reproductive Thinking — The problem of being “Stuck in Set” ◦ Functional Fixedness as an example The “Two-String” Problem The “Box-Candle” Problem The “Box-Candle” Problem The “Box-Candle” Problem The “Stuck-Truck” Problem Matchstick Problems Katona’s Matchstick Problem Luchin’s Water Jar Problem Behaviorism Perception is a Combination of Sensory Input & Cognitive Expectations — Bottom-Up Processing (Data Driven) — Top-Down Processing (Conceptually Driven) ◦ Context Effects Theories of Perception — Probabilistic Models ◦ A “Constructionist” Theory – People actively distort & change sensory information — Ecological Models ◦ Sensory information can be trusted; no need to distort it — The Gestalt Approach ◦ Belief in an “active” mind; field theory ◦ Cannot understand whole perceptions by breaking them down into parts. ◦ The “Law of Pragnanz” – All cognitive experience will be as simple, organized, & regular as possible. Some Gestalt Principles of Organization — Figure & Ground ◦ Reversible Figures; Figural Persistence — Grouping ◦ Proximity ◦ Similarity ◦ Symmetry ◦ Continuity ◦ Closure — Perceptual Constancies ◦ Brightness, Size, Color, Shape Figure & Ground Reversible Figures & Figural Persistence Reversible Figures & Figural Persistence Reversible Figures & Figural Persistence Reversible Figures & Figural Persistence Reversible Figures & Figural Persistence Reversible Figures & Figural Persistence Reversible Figures & Figural Persistence Reversible Figures & Figural Persistence Gestalt Principles of Grouping Illusion! Proximity Closure Size Constancy Optical Illusions: We force the world to conform to our expectations Optical Illusions: We force the world to conform to our expectations The Ames Room The Ames Room The Ames Room The Ames Room The Ames Window Size Illusions: The Moon Illusion Size Illusions: The Moon Illusion Size Illusions Size Illusions Illusions of Motion Illusions of Motion Illusions of Motion Impossible Figures How many legs does the elephant have? Muller-Lyer Illusion Impossible Figures Impossible Figures Impossible Figures Afterimages Color Vision — Rods – Detect variation in light — Cones – responsible for perceiving color — Color Blindness ◦ Red-Green most common ◦ Blue-yellow next most common ◦ “Rod Monocrats” are fairly rare Tests for Color-Blindness Tests for Color-Blindness Tests for Color-Blindness Tests for Color Blindness Color Blindness Color Blindness  Types of Memory Declarative Memory: - Episodic Memory - Semantic Memory Implicit Memory (versus explicit memory) Procedural Memory Prospective Remembering Prospective Remembering The Information-Processing Model of Memory Sensory Memory (Also known as Sensory Register or Sensory Store) Visual Sensory Memory (the Icon) Auditory Sensory Memory (the Echo) — Lasts.25 to.5 seconds; — Lasts up to two seconds never more than I second SENSORY MEMORY How do we study sensory memory? — Full Report — Partial Report — Backward Masking K R F U Z B W X F A D C The Problem of “Selective Attention” Selective attention can lead to “Change Blindness” - The failure to detect changes in parts of a scene Change Blindness — The Door Study — Monkey Business — Basketball — At Harvard — Moonwalking — WhoDunnit? Filter Models of Attention (Broadbent, 1954) Shadowing Experiments Capacity Models of Attention (Kahneman, 1973) Performance-Arousal Curve Performance-Arousal Curve Performing Under Stress: Dealing with an Active Shooter Situation The Stroop Effect Template Models of Pattern Recognition Template Models of Pattern Recognition Prototype Models of Pattern Recognition Feature Detection Models of Pattern Recognition (Pandemonium Model: Selfridge, 1959) Feature Detection Models of Pattern Recognition (Pandemonium Model: Selfridge, 1959) Short Term Memory Long Term Memory — Limited Capacity — Unlimited Capacity — Rapid Forgetting — Retrieval Problems rather — Rehearsal than forgetting ◦ Maintenance — Associative In Nature ◦ Elaborative Short- vs. Long-Term Memory  Why Does Forgetting Occur? STM – Primarily interference, although time plays a role LTM – Almost entirely interference; It is usually a retrieval failure How Is Memory Retrieval Attempted? — Recognition Task — Recall Task ◦ Free Recall ◦ Cued/Probe Recall Retroactive & Proactive Interference Flashbulb Memories Flashbulb Memories Memory “Retrieval” is Often Memory “Reconstruction” The Information-Processing Model of Memory Evidence for the Information- Processing Model of Memory Physiological Evidence Typical Confusion Errors Serial Position Effect Retrograde Amnesia  Levels of Processing: An Example A memory experiment where subjects process information in one of three ways: Physical Appearance: “Is the word printed in capital letters? Acoustic Processing: “Does the word rhyme with ‘pain’?” Semantic Processing: “Does the word fit in the following sentence?: Bill ate the ________ for lunch yesterday.”  Levels of Processing Theory: A Popular Alternative to the Information-Processing Model There is no separate STM & LTM The depth at which you process an incoming stimulus Determines how well it is remembered Deeper processing leads to better memory Depths of Processing  Eyewitness Testimony Eyewitness testimony was THE most common cause of Conviction For suspects later found to be innocent via DNA analysis. Why is Eyewitness Testimony so Unreliable? Why is Eyewitness Testimony so Unreliable? — Perceptual Errors ◦ Inadequate Attention ◦ Less than ideal perceptual circumstances ◦ Selective Perception (e.g., Weapon Focus) Why is Eyewitness Testimony so Unreliable? — The Way Police Lineups are Used The Way Lineups are Used Can Lead to Misidentification — Witnesses tend to identify the person who most resembles the culprit The Way Lineups are Used Can Lead to Misidentification — Witnesses tend to pick out people who are uniquely different in lineup The Way Lineups are Used Can Lead to Misidentification — People may remember a face, but not where they saw it. ◦ Seeing photos of suspects ahead of time may bias judgment ◦ Cross-racial identification is especially poor The Way Lineups are Used Can Lead to Misidentification — Officers in charge can subtly (or not so subtly) influence confidence of identification ◦ How to avoid this? – Officer blind to who suspect is – Refrain from commenting – Stay out of sight to avoid inadvertent nonverbal signals Why is Eyewitness Testimony so Unreliable? — The Nature of Questioning — Ineptitude with Numerical Information — Rehearsal — Children make especially poor eyewitnesses Effects of Mood On Memory — Depressed individuals & people in sad moods are poor at encoding demanding, difficult information (a problem with attention?) — The Pollyanna Principle — Mood Congruence — State Dependence ◦ Also called the “Mood Dependent Memory Effect” Consciousness SLEEP Electroencephalogram (EEG) Old School EEG Patterns: Measuring Brain Activity The Stages of Sleep: Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) — STAGE 1: Drowsy; alpha activity; easily awakened — STAGE 2: Sleep spindles; sound asleep, but easily awakened — STAGE 3: Delta Waves (20-50% of record); hard to wake up; decrease in blood pressure, body temp, muscle tone, heart rate — STAGE 4: Deep Sleep; almost continuous Delta Waves; difficult to wake up; seldom move The Stages of Sleep: REM Sleep — Rapid Eye Movements — Vivid Dreaming — Paradoxical Sleep: Brain Wave Patterns look alert; Theta Wave Spikes in record — Complete loss of muscle tone The Sleep Cycle Theories of REM Sleep & Dreaming — Freudian Theory (Manifest vs. Latent Content) — Activation-Synthesis Theory (Cortex tries to make sense of random brain activity) — Neurocognitive Theory (Dreams are the result of thinking under unusual circumstances) Sigmund Freud & Psychoanalysis Freud: 1856-1939 Why Do We Sleep? — We don’t really know, but some theories: ◦ Brain Development; Solidify information from the day ◦ Repair & Restoration Theory: Restore homeostasis to brain chemistry ◦ Evolutionary or Energy Conservation Theory: We sleep to conserve energy & avoid danger  Effects of Sleep Deprivation — No major effects up until 24 hours — Depression, lethargy, decline on task performance, especially vigilance tasks — Prolonged deprivation (>120 hours) can lead to hallucinations & psychotic behavior — Repeated REM deprivation leads to irritability — Metabolic processes remain largely unaffected  Sleep Disorders — Insomnia — Narcolepsy — Cataplexy — Sleep Apnea — Night Terrors, Sleep Walking — Periodic Limb Movement Disorder ◦ (Restless Leg Syndrome) Sleep Disorder Video Clips — Narcoleptic Dog — Rusty the Narcoleptic Dog — Young Woman – Narcolepsy — Cataplexy — Sleep Apnea — Restless Leg Syndrome Routes to Altered States of Consciousness? — Drugs — Meditation — Hypnosis — Nonchemical Environmental Pathways The Eclipse Experience Sensory Deprivation Studies Sensory Deprivation Studies R.E.S.T: Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique R.E.S.T: Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique Extreme/Unusual Environments Extreme/Unusual Environments  Factors that May be Operating in Extreme or Unusual Environments *Intense or Novel Sensory Stimulation *Trauma from Accidents *Weightlessness, Pressure Changes *Extreme Temperatures or Hypothermia *Restricted Vision, Hearing, Smell *Lack of Social Stimulation *Monotonous Sensory Stimulation from Landscapes or Seascapes The Sensed Presence A perception or feeling that another Person is present, usually to help. Can range from a vague feeling to A flesh & blood entity May be a god, spirit, ancestor, Or person known to observer. Why Does a Sensed Presence Appear? — Motion of Boats — Atmospheric/Geomagnetic Activity — Changes in brain chemistry triggered by: ◦ Stress ◦ Hypothermia ◦ Lack of oxygen ◦ Monotonous stimulation ◦ Buildup of hormones — Shifting of attention from external, ambient stimuli to internal information we have less experience processing. Native American “Vision Quest” Sweat Lodges Navajo Sweat Lodge Crow Sweat Lodge Native American “Vision Quest” Native American “Vision Quest” The Intervention Process — Notice that something is happening — Interpret the event as an emergency — Decide that there is personal responsibility to act — Decide what form of assistance to give — Carry through with the intervention Diffusion of Responsibility Pluralistic Ignorance Fear of Looking Foolish in front of others Apathy? Not a likely explanation The Smoke-Filled Room Study  “Lady in Distress” Study — Alone = 70% — Two Friends = 70% — 2 Naïve Strangers = 40% — With Passive Confederate = 7%  Epileptic Seizure Study: Results Percent helping Percent ever Average time GROUP SIZE By end of seizure responding of response 2 85% 100% 52 seconds (Subject + Victim) 3 62% 85% 93 seconds (Sub. + Victim + Other) 6 31% 62% 166 seconds (Sub. + Victim + 4 Others) EMOTION The Measurement of Emotion — Self-Report — Behavioral Observation — Physiological Measures ◦ Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) ◦ EKG ◦ BMR (oxygen consumption) ◦ EMG (muscle tension) James-Lange Theory of Emotion Self-Perception of Emotional State Schachter & Singer’s Cognitive-Labeling Theory of Emotion — Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has no immediate explanation, he/she will label feelings according to the cognitions available — Given a state of physiological arousal PLUS an appropriate explanation for the arousal – no search for a label takes place. — Given the same cognitive circumstances, individuals react emotionally only to the extent that they are experiencing arousal. Schachter and Singer’s Cognitive Labeling Theory of Emotion  The Three-Factor Theory of Emotion (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974, 1976, 1980) Arousal Non-Arousal Pleasure Non-Pleasure Dominance Submissiveness The Three-Factor Theory of Emotion (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974, 1976, 1980) Reading Emotions in other People How Do We Know that Facial Expressions are Universal and Innate? Cross-Cultural Similarity Studies on Non-Human Primates Studies on Non-Human Primates Studies on Non-Human Primates Studies on Non-Human Primates Studies on Non-Human Primates Studies on Non-Human Primates Facial Expression in People Born Blind Display Rules An Example of a “Display Rules” Study: Japanese vs. American Facial Expressions Seven Basic Facial Expressions of Emotion Basic Facial Expressions of Emotion Facial “Management” Techniques — Qualifying ◦ Quickly follow one expression with another — Modulating ◦ Adjust intensity of expression — Falsifying ◦ Outright faking or covering up Personality Traits  Galen’s (130-200 A.D.) Theory of the Four Temperaments Blood – Cheerful, sanguine, warm-hearted, volatile Black Bile – Sad, Melancholic Yellow Bile – Fiery, Quick-Tempered, Person of Action Phlegm – Slow Moving, Cautious, Phlegmatic When are Traits Good Predictors of Behavior? When they are specific and limited When an individual is extreme on the trait Traits predict general behavior over time better than single instances More specific situations help make traits better predictors The influence of any personality trait can be overpowered by strong situations The Metatrait Hypothesis Personalities of different individuals contain different clusters of traits, so that traits that are important for you (self-schematic traits) are more useful than traits that are not relevant to you (aschematic traits) The “Big Five” Personality Traits Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness (Will to Achieve) Neuroticism (Emotional Stability) Openness to Experience The Measurement of Personality OBJECTIVE MEASURES OF PERSONALITY Global Measures – MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) Specific Measures – Locus of Control PROJECTIVE MEASURES OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES: Rorschach Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) The Rorschach Test The Rorschach Test The Rorschach Test The Rorschach Test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Sigmund Freud & Psychoanalysis Freud: 1856-1939 Freud’s View of Human Nature — Motivation due to the Pleasure Principle — We are driven to action by instincts ◦ Eros: The Sex Instinct – Libido – Psychic energy associated with the sex instinct. ◦ Thanatos: The Death Instinct — Psychic Determinism: Nothing happens by chance — The Unconscious: Part of the personality that is inaccessible to the person Freud’s View of Human Nature Freud’s Model of the Personality — Id ◦ Entirely unconscious ◦ Irrational, impulsive, selfish ◦ No conception of reality or morality ◦ Primary Process Thought — Ego ◦ Develops around 6-8 months ◦ Sane & rational; The Reality Principle ◦ Secondary Process Thought ◦ Anxiety is the Ego’s response to threats — Superego ◦ Morality; internalizes rules; sense of right and wrong ◦ Ego Ideal – what person would like to be ◦ Punishes with guilt Psychosexual Stages of Development — Oral Stage ( Lasts for first12-18 months) — Anal Stage (1-1.5 years through age 3 or so) — Phallic Stage (about 3 until about 6) ◦ Oedipus Complex — Latency Stage ( 6 until puberty) — Genital Stage (puberty through adulthood) Psychosexual Stages of Development The Concept of “Fixation” The Concept of “Fixation” Psychosexual Stages of Development — Oral Stage ( Lasts for first 12-18 months) — Anal Stage (1-1.5 years through age 3 or so) — Phallic Stage (about 3 until about 6) ◦ Oedipus Complex — Latency Stage ( 6 until puberty) — Genital Stage (puberty through adulthood)  Anxiety & Defense Mechanisms — Repression- Ego keeps impulses from consciousness — Denial- Refuse to perceive reality — Displacement- Substitute acceptable for unacceptable things — Sublimation- Rechannel impulses to creative, socially acceptable behavior — Projection- Attribute one’s own undesirable characteristics to others — Reaction Formation- Behave opposite to impulses — Rationalization- Justify through excuses — Intellectualization- Dissociate from feelings; focus on logic — Undoing- Perform desirable act to make up for undesirable one — Compromise Formation- Use contradictory behaviors to gain satisfaction from undesirable impulse  Psychoanalysis — Goal: Seek insight into the unconscious, achieve catharsis & release from tension — Tools of Psychoanalysis: ◦ Hypnosis ◦ Free Association ◦ Analysis of Dreams Other Influential People in Psychoanalysis — Carl Jung (1875-1961) — Alfred Adler (1870-1937) — Karen Horney (1885-1952) — Harry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949) — Otto Rank (1884-1945) Carl Jung (1875-1961) — Psychic energy still an outcome of conflict between opposing forces in personality, but it is not all about sex. — There is a personal AND collective unconscious ◦ Instincts & Archetypes – The Persona – The Shadow – The Animus & Anima — His “Theory of Psychological Types” is very influential in psychology today; the basis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) — Developed advanced techniques for the interpretation of dreams. Alfred Adler (1870-1937) — He called his system “Individual Psychology” — An Individual’s Goals direct his or her behavior ◦ Striving for perfection & completion ◦ Overcoming feelings of inferiority & striving for superiority – Organ Inferiority – Masculine Protest – Inferiority Complex — Social Interest — Style of Life — Early Childhood Experiences are Critical for Development ◦ Parenting Style (pampering vs. neglect) determine style of life ◦ Birth Order is a critical variable — Goals of Psychotherapy: To promote a socially interested style of life & overcome feelings of inferiority ◦ Uses standard psychoanalytic techniques, especially dream interpretation  Third Force Psychology — A Reaction against determinism of Behaviorism & Psychoanalysis ◦ Human behavior is NOT determined ◦ Humans are free to choose their own existence — A Combination of Humanistic & Existential Psychology — Focus is on helping healthy individuals achieve full potential — Humanistic Psychology: People are innately good; We strive to actualize our inner potential — Existential Psychology: We need to create meaning in our life and “Take charge”  Third Force Psychology — Famous Third-Force Psychologists ◦ Martin Heidegger (Existential) ◦ Rollo May (Humanistic) ◦ Erich Fromm (Existential) – Psychopathology results from cultural forces that prevent us from creating meaning ◦ Abraham Maslow (Humanistic) – Psychopathology results from failure to satisfy needs (especially self-actualization needs) ◦ Carl Rogers (Humanistic) – Psychopathology results from a lack of positive self- regard created by “conditions of worth” Maslow’s Hierachy of Needs  Carl Rogers — Person-Centered Therapy — We need to actualize our inner potential — We have a pervasive need for warmth & acceptance – “Positive Regard” — Incongruence between ideal self and real self is a source of unhappiness — Fully functioning people lack “conditions of worth” in their lives – “Unconditional Positive regard” Mental Disorders Perspectives on the Causes of Mental Disorders — Psychodynamic ◦ Results from intrapsychic conflict and ineffective defense mechanisms — Medical ◦ Caused by abnormalities of brain & nervous system — Cognitive-Behavioral ◦ Due to learning and/or faulty beliefs — Humanistic ◦ Being overly sensitive to the expectations & criticisms of others — Sociocultural ◦ Mismatch between behavior & expectations of culture — Diathesis-Stress Model ◦ Genetic predispositions triggered by stress that exceeds coping ability Classification of Mental Disorders — The DSM-V — How are diagnoses done? ◦ The clinical approach: Based upon experience of therapist ◦ The actuarial approach: Applying statistical rules based on research ◦ Research shows actuarial approach to be superior Types of Psychological Disorders Psychoses – Severely Disordered Thinking – Delusional – Person may be unaware that anything is wrong Neuroses – People are anxious, fearful, unhappy, depressed – Behavioral/Perceptual Strategies no longer work well – Person knows that something is wrong Mood Disorders Miscellaneous Disorders Neuroses — Anxiety Disorders ◦ Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) ◦ Panic Disorder – Attacks of terror (may last seconds or hours) – Often afraid that they are dying or going crazy – Hyperventilation – More common in women ◦ Phobic Disorders – Agoraphobia – Social Phobias – Specific Phobias — Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders — Somatoform Disorders — Dissociative Disorders  Neuroses — Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders ◦ Obsession (thought) leads to compulsion (behavior) ◦ Obsessions center on doubts/uncertainty or fear of doing something prohibited ◦ Common categories: counting, checking, cleaning, avoidance — Somatoform Disorders ◦ Physical symptoms without apparent cause ◦ Somatization Disorder: Pain, heart symptoms, gastrointestinal symptoms ◦ Conversion Disorder: Blindness, deafness, loss of feeling, paralysis. ◦ Often occurs in response to an event — Dissociative Disorders ◦ Dissociative Amnesia ◦ Dissociative Fugue State (Fugue State) ◦ Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) (Multiple Personality Disorder)  Schizophrenia — Schizophrenia can be “Reactive” (a single episode) — Schizophrenia can be “Process” (chronic & recurrent) Psychoses (Schizophrenia) Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia – Thought & Speech Disorders Loose associations; word salads; clang associations Excessively concrete thinking – Hallucinations (Usually auditory) – Delusions Persecution Grandeur Somatic Control Reference Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia – Flattened, blunted emotions; apathetic – Poverty of speech – Social Withdrawal – Lack of Initiative – Inability to experience pleasure Diagnosis of Schizophrenia — A person is diagnosed as schizophrenic if ◦ There is a deterioration of daily functioning AND ◦ They show at least One of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia – (hallucinations, thought disorders, delusions) ◦ AND at least two symptoms overall — Catatonia ◦ Catatonic postures; Waxy Flexibility ◦ Alternates with repetitive activity  Causes of Schizophrenia A Biological predisposition activated by stress – Positive symptoms seem to be the result of too much Dopamine activity – (Can be treated by Chlorpromazine [Thorazine]) – Negative symptoms appear to be due to an actual loss of brain tissue Evidence indicates a genetic link Neurodevelopmental hypothesis: – Nervous system impairments that develop around the time of birth (not necessarily genetic) (e.g., People in North born in winter are at greater risk) Mood Disorders — Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) ◦ Overeating, oversleeping, lethargy ◦ Treatment = Phototherapy — Bipolar Disorder ◦ Alternating Mania & Depression ◦ Treatment = drugs (Lithium Carbonate) — Severe Depression ◦ Sad, apathetic mood ◦ Feelings of worthlessness/hopelessness ◦ Social Withdrawal ◦ Sleeplessness, loss of appetite & sexual desire ◦ Change in activity level ◦ In extreme cases there may be delusions ◦ CAUSES: Faulty cognitions; Rumination; internal attributions for negative things; genetic predisposition; More common in women ◦ TREATMENT: ECS; Anti-depressants; Cognitive Therapy Miscellaneous Disorders — Substance Abuse Disorders (More common in men) — Impulse Control Disorders ◦ Intense drive; behaviors reduce tension ◦ Gambling, Pyromania, Kleptomania — Psychosexual Disorders ◦ Gender Dysphoria ◦ Paraphilias ◦ Sexual Dysfunction — Personality Disorders ◦ Narcissism ◦ Anti-Social Personality (Psychopath, Sociopath) – “Dark Triad” Personality taken to the extreme What are Dark Triad Characters Like? What are Dark Triad Characters Like? What are Dark Triad Characters Like? What are Dark Triad Characters Like? What are Dark Triad Characters Like? What are Dark Triad Characters Like? What are Dark Triad Characters Like? Common Traits of Dark Triad People (From Jonason & Webster, 2012) — Selfish — Ruthless self- — Competitive advancement — Sense of entitlement — Manipulative — Sense of superiority — Use seduction/charm or hardball strategies as — Dominant needed — Glib social charm — Equally manipulative — Callous social attitudes with strangers, friends, — Impulsive; low self- & relatives control — Frequent lying What are Dark Triad Characters Like? Psychotherapy Types of Psychotherapy — Insight Therapies ◦ Psychoanalysis ◦ Person-Centered Therapy (Humanistic) ◦ Existential Therapy — Gestalt Therapy — Behavior Therapies ◦ Systematic Desensitization ◦ Aversion Therapy ◦ Implosive Therapy/Flooding ◦ Behavior Modification — Cognitive-Behavior Therapies ◦ Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) ◦ Beck’s Cognitive Therapy for Depression ◦ Cognitive-Behavior Therapy Types of Psychotherapy — Somatic/Biological Therapy ◦ Psychosurgery ◦ Electroconvulsive Therapy ◦ Psychopharmacology — Group Therapy Does Psychotherapy Work? Does Psychotherapy Work? — Very Controversial! — Why is it such a difficult question? ◦ Hard to do controlled studies ◦ Individual reports more positive than statistical analysis — Effects in Individual studies are small, but - ◦ Meta-analysis – avg. person in therapy shows more improvement than 80% without therapy. Professionals Involved in Therapy — Psychiatrists — Clinical Psychologists — Counseling Psychologists — Licensed Clinical Social Workers — Pastoral Counseling — Psychoanalysts & assorted therapists A History of Treating Mental Disorders — Trephination A History of Treating Mental Disorders — Classical Greece & Rome A History of Treating Mental Disorders — Medieval Europe A History of Treating Mental Disorders — Renaissance Europe A History of Treating Mental Disorders — Europe – Industrial Revolution Key Figures in Improvement of Mental Health Treatment — Benjamin Rush ◦ Founder of American Psychiatry ◦ Also signed Declaration of Independence! — Philippe Pinel ◦ Paris, late 1700s; Moral Therapy — Dorothea Dix ◦ Boston Schoolteacher – pioneer in forcing government legislation & building actual mental hospitals — Clifford Beers ◦ Published influential book in 1903