Chapter 1: Psychology PDF

Chapter 1: Psychology 1. Scientific study: knowledge is discovered through empirical observation 2. Behaviour: Any kind of observable action, including words, gestures, responses, and biological activity 3. Mind: The contents of conscious experience, including sensations perceptions through and emot...

Chapter 1: Psychology 1. Scientific study: knowledge is discovered through empirical observation 2. Behaviour: Any kind of observable action, including words, gestures, responses, and biological activity 3. Mind: The contents of conscious experience, including sensations perceptions through and emotions. The Mind-Body Problem Dualism and Descartes – – Argued that the minds and body are separate If separate, the mind is inherently unknowable! For psychology: 1. The mind is a result of a brain activity 2. Use inferences based on behavior What do psychologists do? -> Goal of basic research is to understand fundamental principles of behavior and mind. (JUST UNDERSTANDING) -> Goal of applied research and practice is to use psychological principles to solve practical problems. Basic research in Psychology – Abnormal: How events trigger fugue states in dissociative disorders – Behavioral genetics: Examine genetic markers for Prader-Willi syndrome – Behavioral neuroscience: How estrogen affects recovery from traumatic brain injury – Cognitive: How playing violent video games affects working memory span – Comparative: How people and pigeons time events – Developmental: How successful child prodigies are in adulthood – Personality: How agreeableness affects life satisfaction – Social: How ostracism affects future friendships Rene Descartes: Mind-Body Dualism —> It represents the metaphysical stance that mind and body are two distinct substances, each with a different essential nature. ‘Ali bin al- ‘Abbas Al-Maui’s: Brain structure and mental health disorders Aristotle: Role of experience in learning Applied Psychology – Consumer: Find high traffic areas in stores – Educational: Use equivalence-based instruction to teach reading – Forensic and legal: Discredit eyewitness testimony – Human factors: Design vehicle head-up displays – Health: Increase student physical activity – Industrial and organizational: Use flextime work schedule to increase worker satisfaction – School: Use good behavior awards Ways of Understanding 1. Research: Understand a problem or find a technique to solve it 2. Practice: Apply. A technique in a effort to solve a problem’s 3. Translational: Use basic findings to solve a problem. ⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻ Clinical Psychology Clinical psychologists: Identify, prevent, and relieve psychological distress or dysfunction. (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) – – Research: evaluating predictive value of pyschological assessment Practice: ADHD symptoms Psychiatrists: Same as clinical psychologists, also determine physical sources of illness. (M.D) – – Research: Studying prevalence of autism Practice: Helping patients to manage their schizophrenic auditory hallucinations Counseling psychologists: Help people manage ongoing life crises or situations or transitions between the two. (Ph.D. in counseling, Ed.D) – – Research: Evaluating new academic assessment Practice: Helping clients to manage their opioid addiction Nature vs Nurture ⸻⸻⸻Nature: – – Genes and biology Some psychologists believe we are born with some knowledge Nurture – – Environment Knowledge from direct experience ⸻⸻⸻Ponzo Illussion: A visual illusion in which the upper of two parallel horizontal lines of equal length appears to be longer than the bottom of the two lines when they are flanked by oblique lines that are closer together at the top than they are at the bottom. (Railway lines illusion) Checker Shadow Illusion: Light and dark squares. The Muller-Lyer Illusion: The lines with wings facing out look longer than lines with wings facing inward —> Behavior is due to genes, biology and the environment. Evolutionary Psychology Natural selection – Does this trait aid survival? – If yes, see more of trait in population – If no, see less of trait in population The First Psychology Laboratory – – Wilhelm Wundt: Father of modern psychology, advocate for using scientific techniques to study the mind. Studied immediate conscious experience. Laying the foundations: Structuralism – by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener What? – Can study the structure of the mind by breaking it down into elementary parts How? – Systematic introspection via self-reports. Example: “elements” of taste perception include the combination of 6 carbon, 12 hydrogen, and 6 oxygen atoms for sugar Considering Purpose: Functionalism – by William James, and James Rowland Angelo What? – Interested in the purpose of a process rather than its components, influenced by Darwin. – Extended psychology into individual differences and applies uses. Refining Methodology: Behaviorism – by John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner What? – Reaction to introspection and the unknowable mind – Focused on only observable behavior – Helped discover principles of behavior change, reinforcement, and extinction A RETURN TO MIND: THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION When and what? – A shift away from behaviorism beginning in the 1950s – Renewed focus on mental states and internal processes Why? – – Heavily influenced by the computer and other technology Reprioritized mental events as explanation for complex cognition Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis – Neurologist out of Vienna What? – The first major movement clinical psychology in modern history – Focused on the influence of the unconscious mind – Used psychoanalysis to help patients solve psychological problems through insight – Free association, dream analysis, etc. The Humanists and Positive Psychology. – Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, Martin Seligman (positive psychology) What? – A reaction to Freud’s pessimistic view of human nature – Focused on positive aspects of the human condition and capacity for change Ultimate and Proximate Explanations – Ultimate explanations: Technically must appeal to evolution, borrowed concept from biology. – Proximate explanations: Describe more immediate (non-evolutionary explanations), can be either functional or process-oriented Infant cries ⸺> Proximate cause —> Caregiver hears cries and removes painful stimulation. | | | | | Ultimate cause —> Caregiver hears cries and knows that the infant needs care. ⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻ Ultimate explanation – Crying is adaptive – Tells caregivers when attention is needed – Infants are fragile and need help to survive ⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻ Proximate Explanations 1. Functional explanation: A baby cries when hungry 2. Process-oriented explanation: Crying occurs because of biological processes happening in the tear duct ⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻ ⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻ Consider the GENE LEVEL for behavior – Is the gene passed on? – Not always about individual “reproduction and survival” – Helping others is not immediately beneficial for the helper: “Altruism” —> adaptive Consider the CONTEXT for behavior – maladaptive today was it always? – Behavior might not be a direct result of evolution ⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻ Different cultures can be based on – – – – Gender Race/ethnicity Nationality Affinities (like political party By focusing on one aspect of identity or cultures, is another being ignored? – Want to be INCLUSIVE WEIRD Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic ⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻⸻ Ethnocentrism: The belief that one’s own culture is superior to others: Judging other cultures’ food and specialty dishes. Cultural Imposition: Assuming that one’s own values, beliefs, or practices are universally applicable or preferable. Overgeneralization: Assuming that cultural behaviors, beliefs, or practices observed in a subset of a population apply to the entire population. (STEREOTYPES). Researcher Bias: A researcher’s own cultural background, beliefs, and values can influence the formulation of research questions, interpretation of data, and conclusions drawn. Translation and Linguistic Issues: Direct translation of research instruments or questions. Cultural Blindness: Ignoring or being unaware of cultural differences and treating everyone as if they are the SAME. Out-group Homogeneity Bias: The tendency to assume that the members of other groups are very similar to each other. Cultural Relativism: OPPOSITE OF ETHNOCENTRISM: it’s the belief that all cultural beliefs, values, and practices have equal validity.