Introduction to Psychology (1-51) PDF

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL in INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Contributors; Agos, Charlon Guinto, Adrian Romero, Krisette Bien, Jonna Karla Manda, Aimee Rose Santos, Geraldine Decin, Zail...

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL in INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Contributors; Agos, Charlon Guinto, Adrian Romero, Krisette Bien, Jonna Karla Manda, Aimee Rose Santos, Geraldine Decin, Zaila Morales, Timothy Samaniego, Elfie Entienza, Christ Michael Nachor, Ariane Nicole 0  INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY COURSE OBJECTIVES To explore the subject matter of the field and to become familiar with the vocabulary and concepts of the field and with some of the research findings upon which our knowledge of human thought and behavior is based. To emphasize development of critical thinking skills and to prepare to be a cautious and analytical consumer of information that is proclaimed scientific or based on research. Understanding and acceptance of yourself and others that will enrich your personal relationships. Explore the historical roots of different theories of psychology and understand its importance. Identify the differences in theories of psychology and its application to everyday situation. Demonstrate the use of various theories to understand individual differences through analysis of various cases presented in class. Appreciate and respect the individual differences among peoples through this course. TABLE OF CONTENTS UNIT 1 The Nature of Psychology........................................................... 2-13 UNIT 2 Psychological Research........................................................... 14-21 UNIT 3 Biological Bases of Behavior............................................... 22-29 UNIT 4 Human Development........................................................... 30-40 UNIT 5 Sensation and Perception........................................................... 40-51 UNIT 6 States of Consciousness........................................................... 51-58 UNIT 7 Learning and Memory........................................................... 59-67 UNIT 8 Thinking, Language and Intelligence................................... 67-83 UNIT 9 Motivation and Emotion........................................................... 84-93 UNIT 10 Personality.................................................................................. 94-116 UNIT 11 Stress, Health and Adjustment............................................... 116-125 UNIT 12 Abnormal Behavior...................................................................... 125-147 UNIT 13 Methods of Therapy...................................................................... 147-157 UNIT 14 Social Psychology...................................................................... 157-164 *Read this Material from Up Down, Left to Right. 1 UNIT 1: The Nature of Psychology specialization. The last part will prove that its goals will provide how this program is the best I. LEARNING OBJECTIVE/OUTCOMES choice for you. 1. Understand the historical background of Psychology. Now brace yourself because you are about to 2. Identify the traditional schools of learn and enjoy this very interesting topic- Psychology. Psychology. 3. Determine the different fields of III. LESSON PROPER specialization in Psychology. 4. Identify the goals of Psychology: to Lesson 1: History of Psychology describe, explain, predict and control. What is Psychology? II. INTRODUCTION Psychology derived from two Greek words “psyche”, means mind, spirit or soul and “logos “What made you decide to take up this course?” “means science, study or discipline. To the Greeks, psychology is simply a study of This question may prompt you to pause and go the soul. back to the time when you were contemplating In 1590, the word psychology was coined by a on what program you will get in college. German scientist, Rudolf Glocenius. Certainly, you based your decision on a lot of While In 1693, it was originally spelled as P-s-y- factors that made you finally say to yourself that c-o-l-o-g-y that first appeared in the dictionary. Psychology is the one. And what makes Psychology unique? Its basic definitions explained that: Like everyone else, you probably have so many questions to yourself that still unanswered. Psychology is the scientific study of the These curiosities start as you grew and observe behavior of individuals and their mental people around including the environment you processes were in. You might be wondering why some The Scientific Method people became mentally challenge; how others became very successful and yet extremely It consists of a set of orderly steps used unhappy; How life has become more to analyze and solve problems complicated now when it was very simple back Behavior then during your childhood years? Sometimes The means and actions by which you think it is not fair. Oftentimes you find it organisms, including both animals and difficult to understand yourself when in fact to humans, adjust to their environment. some it seems very easy? While there may be a It is everything we do that can be directly lot of “why’s and how’s” running to your mind, observed. It was previously interpreted luckily, someone had mentioned this course to as the movements of the body that could you. Or while you are browsing the internet, you be seen or observed. Recently, it has came across about Psychology… this may be broadened to include feelings, attitudes the reason why you are here, hoping to find relief and mental process that are not directly to your longed self- queries… observed but can be inferred from external behavior. In this chapter, you will be toured in how Mental Processes Psychology was developed and its significance The private, internal workings of the as an academic discipline and mental health human mind. profession. You will also know that Psychology These are internal subjective has different schools of thought and fields of experiences inferred from behavior – the sensations, perception, dreams, 2  thoughts, beliefs, and feelings. It is an D. 19th Century/ Modern Period- beginning of activity of organism that involves the experimental/ scientific psychology. mind like cognition, memory, learning, E. 20th Century- flourished of psychology in problem solving etc. different parts of the world. So it is formally defined as the scientific study VERY IMPORTANT PERSONS: of behavior and mental processes (Hilgard & Atkinson). This definition usually included the The Greek Philosophers investigation of animal as well as human Aristotle (4th Century B.C., 384-322 BC) is behavior on the assumption that: regarded as the Father of Psychology. 1. Information obtained from experiments According to him, knowledge is not inborn; with subhuman species could be instead it is acquired through experiences. He generalized to human beings. postulates that the mind at birth was a blank 2. Animal behavior was of interest in its sheet (tabula rasa) and that experiences an own right. individual encounters in his lifetime are impressed on his mind. He distinguished 3 It also reflects psychology’s concern with the functions of the soul; vegetative (basic objective study of observable (overt) behavior, maintenance of life); appetitive (motives and while recognizing the importance of desires); and rational (the governing functions) understanding mental processes and behavior which is located in the heart. that cannot be directly observed (covert). Plato (427-347 B.C.) conceived the existence of Silvermann defines Psychology as the study of soul in the body, which is God-given. He divided human beings– how they behave, how they feel, the human mind into three parts: the rational how they think, how they adjust or how they part, the will, and the appetites. Ideally the will get along with one another and how they supports the rational element, which in turn become the individuals that they are. controls the appetites. If the rational element is not developed, the individual behaves immorally; ❖ HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF hence immorality is a consequence of ignorance. PSYCHOLOGY He described knowledge as a higher form of Psychology has both a traditional and a scientific awareness, because it is gained from reason history. Traditionally, the earliest speculation rather than from sense experience. concerning the relationship of events was in Hippocrates (0460-377 B.C.) is an ancient terms of causal agents. Gods or spirits Greek physician; he is called the Father of (supernatural agents) were believed to direct Medicine. He was regarded as the greatest man’s activities. This idea is called animism. As physician of his time. He based his medical an experimental science, it dates back from practice on observations and on the study of the about 1875 and Psychology’s birth was set in human body. He held the belief that illness had 1879 through Wilhelm Wundt. a physical and rational explanation. He rejected DIFFERENT PERIODS: the views of his time that considered illness to be A. Ancient Period- prevalence of belief in caused by superstitions and by possession of supernatural to cause people’s activities. evil spirits and disfavor of the gods. B. Greek Period- Greek philosophers laid down Medieval Period the earliest foundations of psychology. C. Medieval Period- Merging of science of The church father, St. Augustine (1227-1274) mind and religion to explain fate of man. had an interesting idea about mind. He said that 3 the human mind couldn’t gain knowledge from Gustav Fechner and Ernst Weber founded a sense perception alone. He also rejected Plato’s new discipline, Psychophysics, which is theory of ideas. Instead, according to Augustine, concerned with the measurement of knowledge is acquired on account of divine psychological effects of sensation illumination. His insightful descriptions of Psychology in Different Parts of the World subjective events begin the tradition of (20th Century) introspection (process of mental self- analysis) and phenomenology (study of subjective o Psychology in America experience) in psychology. William James was considered as the Dean of An interesting overall explanation provided by American psychologists and one of the founders Saint Thomas Aquinas (354 430 B.C.) was that of Functionalism. He stressed the importance of God created human beings so that God had observing and quantifying behavior. He someone who loved him/her. Also, that man advocated the use of animals in psychological should live to enjoy their existence in God. research. Aquinas also believed that the human person is a soul-body unity. The soul is immortal. He Stanley Hall pioneered in child study combined the science of mind and religion to movement, wrote on child, adolescent and explain the idea of immortality. senescent psychology. He was considered as the Father of Child Study Movement. The Pre-Modern Period James McKeen Cattell was considered as the Rene Descartes (1649) is recognized as the Father of Mental Testing Movement. He founder of modern philosophy. He formulated the developed intelligence tests for use in America theory of mind/body interaction. He proposed a mechanism for automatic reaction in response to o Psychology in France external events. It was Descartes’ articulation of Philippe Pinel provided psychological this mechanism for automatic, differentiated interpretation of insanity. reaction that led to his generally being credited with the founding of reflex theory. He Anton Mesmer developed hypnotism for cure of stated that mind like machine can be studied. behavior disorder. John Locke (1690) introduced the idea that Alfred Binet developed intelligence test to all experiences that be analyze. He conceived identify between mentally retarded children the idea of tabula-rasa of which at birth the mind from normal ones. He is the Father of is like a blank sheet that gathers its contents from Intelligence Testing experiences that an individual encounters during o Psychology in Vienna his lifetime Sigmund Freud founded psychoanalysis, which Modern or Scientific Psychology (2nd Half of is a branch of Mental Psychology. He concluded that mental disorder might be caused purely by the 19th Century) psychological factor rather than organic factors. German Scientists: He proposed that dreams are the disguised expressions of unconscious wishes. He Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological emphasized libidinal (sex) urges of a person laboratory in 1879 at Leipzig, Germany. He was considered as the Father of Experimental Carl Jung was a Swiss psychologist but a Psychology. follower of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. He is one of the best known contemporary contributors 4 to dream analysis and symbolization. He particularly feelings and sensations. The develops his theory the origin of neurosis. He structuralists attempted to give a scientific established Analytic Psychology analysis of conscious experience by breaking it down into its specific components or structures. Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst They primarily used a method of research called who practiced in the United States during her introspection. In this technique, subjects were later career. She was a Neo-Freudian but trained to observe and report as accurately as questioned some traditional Freudian views, they could their mental processes, feelings, and particularly her theory of sexuality. She experiences. disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women, and Findings/ Results of their study were: traced such differences to society and culture 1. Mental states are responsible for man’s rather than biology. She rejected his concept of behavior. penis envy, declaring it to be both inaccurate and 2. Psychology is described as man and his demeaning to women. She instead proposed the experiences. concept of womb envy in which men experience 3. There are 8 kinds of sensation: visual, feelings of inferiority because they cannot give auditory, gustatory, olfactory, and cutaneous birth to children, thus founding Feminist (external sensation), organic, vestibular, and Psychology. kinesthetic (internal sensation). 4. Complex experiences are made of elements o Psychology in England such as images. Charles Darwin made the theory of evolution which established the continuity between man FUNCTIONALISM was formed as a reaction to and animals. He made Comparative Psychology the structuralism and was heavily influenced by important. the work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Functionalists sought Sir Francis Galton devised the earliest test to to explain the mental processes in a more determine hereditary influences to intelligence. systematic and accurate manner. Functionalists He devised statistical technique (correlation) to focused on the purpose of consciousness and determine relationship of one variable (first trait) behavior, instead on the elements of to another variable (second trait). He used the consciousness technique to compare the intelligence of parents to their offspring. Findings/ Results of their study were: 1. Learning is a means of man’s adjustment to Lesson 2: SCHOOLS OF his surroundings. PSYCHOLOGY 2. Mental states influences man’s behavior. Psychologists have opposing viewpoints and 3. Stimulus- response (SR) explains man’s theories on the nature and functions of behavior. psychology. When a large number of psychologists support a certain viewpoint, they BEHAVIORISM was introduced in 1913 by John are called a “school”. Between 1879 and 1930, B. Watson, an American psychologist. several important schools of psychology Behaviorist believed that observable behavior, developed. not inner experience, was the only reliable source of information. This concentration on STRUCTURALISM grew out of the works of observable events was a reaction against the James, Wundt, and their associates. The chief structuralists' emphasis on introspection. They purpose of this psychology was to describe, stressed the importance of the environment in analyze, and explain conscious experience, shaping an individual's behavior. They chiefly 5 looked for connections between observable 3. The unconscious attempt of an individual to behavior and stimuli from the environment. overcome inferiority is a stronger driving force. Findings/ Results of their study were: PURPOSIVISM contends that mental life is 1. Behavior is explained in terms of reflex and hormic or goal-seeking. William McDougall, the conditioned reflex. foremost Purposivist, maintains that the driving 2. Man’s conduct is not due to consciousness forces for consciousness are innate urges or but to stimulus. tendencies, chief of which are the submissive 3. Objective method not introspection should be and self-assertive tendencies. Which are used in overt behavior. exercised in goal-seeking. James' preoccupation with instincts brought the subject to the fore. But GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY was founded about it was McDougall who made instincts central in 1912 by Max Wertheimer, a German behavior. His definition of conduct is pointed psychologist. Like behaviorism, it developed as toward a clearly defined purposiveness. a reaction against structuralism. Gestalt Findings/ Results of their study were: psychologists believed that human beings 1. Striving is the cause of all behavior. perceive the external world as an organized 2. Ductless glands produce hormones in life. pattern, not as individual sensations. The Gestalt 3. Objects, movements and behavior have is a German word meaning pattern, form, or definite purposes. shape. The Gestaltists believed that behavior should be studied as an organized pattern rather than as separate incidents of stimulus and Lesson 3: FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY response. The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Findings/ Results of their study were: Family Tree 1. The whole experience is more than the sum of its parts (Gestalt principle). As the study of psychology has grown, it has 2. A change in any element changes the whole. given rise to a number of subfields which can 3. The mind functions as a whole unit. be likened to an extended family, with assorted PSYCHOANALYSIS was founded by the nieces and nephews, aunts and uncles, and Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud in 1800. cousins who, although they may not interact on Psychoanalysis was based on the theory that a day-to-day basis, are related to one another, behavior is determined by powerful inner forces, because they share a common goal: most of which are buried in the unconscious understanding behavior. One way to identify the mind. According to Freud and other key subfields is to look at some of the basic psychoanalysts (Carl Jung, Karen Horney, and questions about behavior that they address. Alfred Adler), from early childhood, people repress (force out of conscious awareness) any desires or needs that are unacceptable to themselves or to society which can cause personality disturbances, self-destructive behavior, or even physical symptoms. Findings/ Results of their study were: 1. LIBIDO THEORY: Sex urges are responsible for man’s behavior. 2. Personality is a stronger force in determining human behavior (extroversion – introversion). 6 WHAT ARE THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR? In the most fundamental sense, people are biological organisms. Behavioral neuroscience is the subfield of psychology that focuses on how the brain and the nervous system, as well as other biological aspects of the body, determine behavior. HOW DO PEOPLE SENSE, PERCEIVE, LEARN, AND THINK ABOUT THE WORLD? If you have ever wondered why you are susceptible to optical illusions, how your body registers pain, or how to make the most of your study time, an experimental psychologist can answer your questions. Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world. (The term experimental psychologist is somewhat misleading: Psychologists in every specialty area use experimental techniques.) WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF CHANGE AND STABILITY IN BEHAVIOR ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN? A baby producing her first smile... taking his first step... saying her first word. These universal milestones in development are also singularly special and unique for each person. Developmental psychology studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death. Personality psychology focuses on the consistency in people’s behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another. HOW DO PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECT PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH? Frequent depression, stress, and fears that prevent people from carrying out their normal activities are topics that interest a health psychologist, a clinical psychologist, and a 7 counseling psychologist. Health psychology EXPANDING PSYCHOLOGY’S FRONTIERS explores the relationship between psychological Evolutionary Psychology. Evolutionary factors and physical ailments or disease. psychology considers how behavior is influenced Clinical psychology deals with the study, by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. diagnosis, and treatment of psychological The evolutionary approach suggests that the disorders. Clinical psychologists are trained to chemical coding of information in our cells not diagnose and treat problems that range from the only determines traits such as hair color and race crises of everyday life, such as unhappiness over but also holds the key to understanding a broad the breakup of a relationship, to more extreme variety of behaviors that helped our ancestors conditions, such as profound, lingering survive and reproduce. depression. Some clinical psychologists also Behavioral Genetics. Another rapidly growing research and investigate issues that vary from area in psychology focuses on the biological identifying the early signs of psychological mechanisms, such as genes and chromosomes disturbance to studying the relationship between that enable inherited behavior to unfold. family communication patterns and Behavioral genetics seeks to understand how we psychological disorders. might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the Counseling psychology focuses primarily on environment influences whether we actually educational, social, and career adjustment display such traits (Moffi tt & Caspi, 2007; problems. Almost every college has a center Rende, 2007; Maxson, 2013). staffed with counseling psychologists. This is Clinical Neuropsychology. Clinical where students can get advice on the kinds of neuropsychology unites the areas of jobs they might be best suited for, on methods of neuroscience and clinical psychology: It focuses studying effectively, and on strategies for on the origin of psychological disorders in resolving everyday difficulties, such as problems biological factors. Building on advances in our with roommates and concerns about a specific understanding of the structure and chemistry of professor’s grading practices. the brain, this specialty has already led to promising new treatments for psychological HOW DO OUR SOCIAL NETWORKS AFFECT disorders as well as debates over the use of BEHAVIOR? medication to control behavior (Boake, 2008; Our complex networks of social Holtz, 2011). interrelationships are the focus for many subfields of psychology. For example, social Lesson 4: GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY psychology is the study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by As you consider the many topics and others. Social psychologists concentrate on such perspectives that make up psychology, ranging diverse topics as human aggression, liking and from a narrow focus on minute biochemical loving, persuasion, and conformity. influences on behavior to a broad focus on social Cross-cultural psychology investigates the behaviors, you might find yourself thinking that similarities and differences in psychological the discipline lacks cohesion. However, the field functioning in and across various cultures and is more unified than a first glimpse might ethnic groups. For example, cross-cultural suggest. For one thing, no matter what topical psychologists examine how cultures differ in area a psychologist specializes in, he or she will their use of punishment during child rearing. rely primarily on one of the five major 8 perspectives. For example, a developmental Psychology aim to understand. First is the issued psychologist who specializes in the study of on Nature vs Nurture. A psychologist’s take on children could make use of the cognitive this issue depends partly on which major perspective or the psychodynamic perspective perspective he or she subscribes to. For or any of the other major perspectives. example, developmental psychologists whose focus is on how people grow and change Psychologists also agree on what the key issues throughout the course of their lives may be most of the field are. Although there are major interested in learning more about hereditary arguments regarding how best to address and influences if they follow a neuroscience resolve the key issues, psychology is a unified perspective. In contrast, developmental science, because psychologists of all psychologists who are proponents of the perspectives agree that the issues must be behavioral perspective are more likely to focus addressed if the field is going to advance. As you on environment (Rutter, 2002, 2006; Barrett, contemplate these key issues, try not to think of 2011). However, every psychologist would agree them in “either/or” terms. Instead, consider the that neither nature nor nurture alone is the sole opposing viewpoints on each issue as the determinant of behavior; rather, it is a opposite ends of a continuum, with the positions combination of the two. In a sense, then, the real of individual psychologists typically falling controversy involves how much of our behavior somewhere between the two ends. is caused by heredity and how much is caused by environmental influences. A second major question addressed by psychologists’ concerns conscious versus unconscious causes of behavior. How much of our behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware, and how much is due to unconscious activity—mental processes that are not accessible to the conscious mind? This question represents one of the great controversies in the field of psychology. For example, clinical psychologists adopting a psychodynamic perspective argue that psychological disorders are brought about by unconscious factors, whereas psychologists employing the cognitive perspective suggest that psychological disorders largely are the result of faulty thinking processes. The next issue is observable behavior versus internal mental processes. Should psychology concentrate solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers, or should it focus on The figure above shows the issues that unseen thinking processes? Some 9 psychologists, particularly those relying on the but what does the future hold for the discipline? behavioral perspective, contend that the only Although the course of scientific development is legitimate source of information for psychologists notoriously difficult to predict, several trends is behavior that can be observed directly. Other seem likely: psychologists, building on the cognitive perspective, argue that what goes on inside a As its knowledge base grows, person’s mind is critical to understanding psychology will become increasingly behavior, and so we must concern ourselves specialized and new perspectives will with mental processes. evolve. For example, our growing understanding of the brain and the Free will versus determinism is another key nervous system, combined with scientific issue. How much of our behavior is a matter of advances in genetics and gene therapy, free will (choices made freely by an individual), will allow psychologists to focus on and how much is subject to determinism, the prevention of psychological disorders notion that behavior is largely produced by rather than only on their treatment factors beyond people’s willful control? An issue (Cuijpers et al., 2008). long debated by philosophers, the free- The evolving sophistication of will/determinism argument is also central to the fi neuroscientific approaches is likely to eld of psychology (Cary, 2007; Nichols, 2011; have an increasing influence over other Vonasch & Baumeister, 2013). branches of psychology. For instance, social psychologists already are The last of the key issues concerns individual increasing their understanding of social differences versus universal principles. behaviors such as persuasion by using Specifically, how much of our behavior is a brain scans as part of an evolving field consequence of our unique and special qualities, the individual differences that differentiate us known as social neuroscience. from other people? Conversely, how much Furthermore, as neuroscientific reflects the culture and society in which we live, techniques become more sophisticated, stemming from universal principles that underlie there will be new ways of applying that the behavior of all humans? Psychologists who knowledge, as we discuss in rely on the neuroscience perspective tend to look Neuroscience in Your Life (Bunge & for universal principles of behavior, such as how Wallis, 2008; Cacioppo & Decety, 2009). the nervous system operates or the way certain Psychology’s influence on issues of hormones automatically prime us for sexual public interest also will grow. The major activity. Such psychologists concentrate on the problems of our time—such as violence, similarities in our behavioral destinies despite vast differences in our upbringing. In contrast, terrorism, racial and ethnic prejudice, psychologists who employ the humanistic poverty, and environmental and perspective focus more on the uniqueness of technological disasters—have important every individual. They consider every person’s psychological components (Zimbardo, behavior a reflection of distinct and special 2004; Hobfoll, Hall, & Canetti-Nisim, individual qualities. 2007; Marshall, Bryant, & Amsel, 2007). The public’s view of psychology will Psychology’s Future become more informed. Surveys show We have examined psychology’s foundations, that the public at large does not fully 10  understand the scientific underpinnings study of racial, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural of the field. However, as the field itself factors—will become more important to embraces such practices as using psychologists providing services and doing research. The result will be a field that can scientific evidence to choose the best provide an understanding of human behavior in treatments for psychological disorders, its broadest sense (Chang & Sue, 2005; psychology’s reputation will grow Quintana et al., 2006). (Lilienfeld, 2012). Finally, as the population becomes more diverse, issues of diversity—embodied in the IV. ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES TITLE: WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO? Objective: To determine the services performed by psychologists Instruction: Psychologist can work in a wide variety of settings. Find out what they do in the different work settings and areas of specialization in psychology. Use this table to write your answers. Refer to psychology book or psychology internet website. Give at least 2 functions of psychologist in each setting. Write your references. Work Setting Typical Activities Specialization A. Educational 1. __________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ 2. _ ___________________________ B. Industrial 1. __________________ __________________________ ___________________________ 2. ___________________________ ___________________________ C. Clinical 1. __________________________ ___________________________ 2. ___________________________ ___________________________ References: ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 11 V. ASSESSMENT Write the letter of your answer on the space provided. Choose from below. ______1. Joan, a college freshman, is worried about her grades. She needs to learn better organizational skills and study habits to cope with the demands of college. ______2. At what age do children generally begin to acquire an emotional attachment to their fathers? ______3. It is thought that pornographic films that depict violence against women may prompt aggressive behavior in some men. ______4. What chemicals are released in the human body as a result of a stressful event? What are their effects on behavior? ______5. Luis is unique in his manner of responding to crisis situations, with an even temperament and a positive outlook. ______6. The teachers of 8-year-old Jack are concerned that he has recently begun to withdraw socially and to show little interest in schoolwork. ______7. Janetta’s job is demanding and stressful. She wonders if her lifestyle is making her more prone to certain illnesses, such as cancer and heart disease. ______8. A psychologist is intrigued by the fact that some people are much more sensitive to painful stimuli than others are. ______9. A strong fear of crowds leads a young man to seek treatment for his problem. ______10. What mental strategies are involved in solving complex word problems? ______11. What teaching methods most effectively motivate elementary school students to successfully accomplish academic tasks? ______12. Jessica is asked to develop a management strategy that will encourage safer work practices in an assembly plant. a. behavioral neuroscience g. clinical psychology b. experimental psychology h. counseling psychology c. cognitive psychology i. educational psychology d. developmental psychology j. school psychology e. personality psychology k. social psychology f. health psychology l. industrial psychology 12 VI. SUMMARY o There are three important elements in the definition of psychology: science, behavior, and mental processes. o The history of psychology has both a traditional and scientific history. During the ancient times, belief about cause of behavior was by supernatural agents. Greeks provided the early explanation of behavior, the founding of psychological laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt marked the beginning of scientific psychology. o There are differing viewpoints/theories of psychology. Schools of psychology are formed emphasizing their different concern in the study of behavior. There were six schools of psychology: structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, gestalt, purposivism and psychoanalysis. o The study of psychology can be approached from several perspectives namely; biological, behavioral, cognitive, psychoanalytic and humanistic. o There are different branches of psychology and many new areas of inquiry are emerging at this present time. o Psychology is a science because it is objective and systematic in its study of how people behave and think. It has 4 goals which are to understand and explain, to predict, control behavior and to improve the quality of life. o Psychologists may engage in teaching research, and professional practice in psychology related settings as in mental health clinics, government, and industry. o Psychologists are concerned in resolving some key issues and controversies in psychology, depending on their area of expertise VII. REFERENCES Baucum, D. (2006). Psychology (2nd ed.). Barron's Feldman, R.S. (2015). Understanding Psychology (12th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill. Kalat, J. (2007) Introduction to Psychology (8th Edition) Lahey, B. (2012). Psychology An introduction. McGraw Hill Higher Education Myers, D. G. (2011). Exploring Psychology (8th ed.). Worth Publishers. Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2016). Exploring psychology (10th ed.). Worth Publishers, Macmillan Learning. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Atkinson, R. L. (2012). Atkinson & Hilgard's introduction to psychology (15th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning. 13 Unit 2: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Psychologists—as well as scientists in other disciplines—meet the challenge of posing appropriate questions and properly answering LEARNING OBJECTIVE them by relying on the scientific method. The Explain the scientific method and the scientific method is the approach used by roles of theories and hypotheses in psychologists to systematically acquire psychological research. knowledge and understanding about behavior Demonstrate different research methods and other phenomena of interest. The figure Explain what a correlation coefficient tells below illustrates the four main steps of scientific us about the relationship between method, they are: (1) identifying questions of variables. Recognize that correlation does not interest, (2) formulating an explanation, (3) indicate a cause-and-effect relationship carrying out research designed to support or between variables refute the explanation, and (4) communicating Discuss our tendency to look for the findings. relationships between variables that do not really exist. Explain random sampling and assignment of participants into experimental and control groups. Discuss how experimenter or participant bias could affect the results of an experiment. Identify independent and dependent variables. Discuss the major issues psychologists confront while conducting research The Scientific Method “Birds of a feather flock together”... or “Opposites attract”? “Two heads are better than Figure 3.1 one”... or “If you want a thing done well, do it The scientific method, which encompasses the yourself”? “The more the merrier”... or “Two’s process of identifying, asking, and answering company, three’s a crowd”? questions, is used by psychologists, and by researchers from every other scientific If we were to rely on common sense to discipline, to come to an understanding about understand behavior, we’d have considerable the world. difficulty—especially because commonsense views are often contradictory. In fact, one of the major undertakings for the field of psychology is to develop suppositions about behavior and to determine which of those suppositions are accurate. 14 Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations example, one theory might seek to explain and In using the scientific method, predict a phenomenon as broad as emotional psychologists start by identifying questions of experience. A narrower theory might attempt to interest. We have all been curious at some time explain why people display the emotion of fear about our observations of everyday behavior. If nonverbally after receiving a threat (Guerrero, La you have ever asked yourself why a particular Valley, & Farinelli, 2008; Waller, Cray, & teacher is so easily annoyed, why a friend is Burrows, 2008; Anker & Feeley, 2011). always late for appointments, or how your dog understands your commands, you have been Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions formulating questions about behavior. Although theories as to how and why do Psychologists, too, ask questions about things work or why different situations happen the nature and causes of behavior. They may make sense, it only represents the beginning of want to explore explanations for everyday the investigative process. The next step was to behaviors or for various phenomena. They may devise a way to test theories. A hypothesis is a also pose questions that build on findings from prediction stated in a way that allows it to be their previous research or from research carried tested. Hypotheses stem from theories; they out by other psychologists. Or they may produce help test the underlying soundness of theories. new questions that are based on curiosity, In the same way that we develop our own creativity, or insight. broad theories about the world, we also construct After a question has been identified, the hypotheses about events and behavior. Those next step in the scientific method is to develop a hypotheses can range from trivialities (such as theory to explain the observed phenomenon. why our English instructor wears those weird Theories are broad explanations and shirts) to more meaningful matters (such as what predictions concerning phenomena of interest. is the best way to study for a test). Although we They provide a framework for understanding the rarely test these hypotheses systematically, we relationships among a set of otherwise do try to determine whether they are right. unorganized facts or principles. Perhaps we try comparing two strategies: cramming the night before an exam versus All of us have developed our own spreading out our study over several nights. By informal theories of human behavior, such as assessing which approach yields better test “People are basically good” or “People’s performance, we have created a way to compare behavior is usually motivated by self-interest.” the two strategies. However, psychologists’ theories are more formal and focused. They are established on the A hypothesis must be restated in a way basis of a careful study of the psychological that will allow it to be tested, which involves literature to identify earlier relevant research and creating an operational definition. An previously formulated theories, as well as operational definition is the translation of a psychologists’ general knowledge of the field. hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed. Growing out of the diverse approaches employed by psychologists, theories vary both in There is no single way to go about their breadth and in their level of detail. For devising an operational definition for a 15 hypothesis; it depends on logic, the equipment shared by all the bystanders. Thus, the greater and facilities available, the psychological the number of bystanders in an emergency perspective being employed, and ultimately the situation, the smaller the share of the creativity of the researcher. For example, one responsibility each person feels—and the less researcher might develop a hypothesis that uses likely that any single person will come forward to as an operational definition of “fear” an increase help. in heart rate. In contrast, another psychologist might use as an operational definition of “fear” a Latané and Darley’s hypothesis was a written response to the question “How much fear straightforward prediction from their more are you experiencing at this moment?” general theory of diffusion of responsibility: The more people who witness an emergency Psychologists rely on formal theories and situation, the less likely it is that help will be given hypotheses for many reasons. For one thing, to a victim. They could, of course, have chosen theories and hypotheses allow them to make another hypothesis (try to think of one!), but their sense of unorganized, separate observations initial formulation seemed to offer the most direct and bits of information by permitting them to test of the theory. place the pieces within a coherent framework. In addition, theories and hypotheses offer APPROACHES TO RESEARCH psychologists the opportunity to move beyond Clinical or case studies known facts and make deductions about unexplained phenomena and develop ideas for In observational research, future investigation (Cohen, 2003; Gurin, 2006; scientists are conducting a van Wesel, Boeije, & Hoijtink, 2013). In short, the clinical or case study when they focus on one person or scientific method, with its emphasis on theories just a few individuals. and hypotheses, helps psychologists pose appropriate questions. With properly stated This approach is often used questions in hand, psychologists then can when studying individuals choose from a variety of research methods to who are interesting to find answers. researchers because they have a rare characteristic. Theory of Diffusion of Responsibility by Bibb Latane and John Darley: An Example of Generalizing Scientific Method and Theory Development Refers to the ability to apply the findings of a particular Psychologists Bibb Latané and John research project to larger Darley, responding to the failure of bystanders to segments of society. intervene when Kitty Genovese was murdered in New York, developed what they called a theory Naturalistic Observation of diffusion of responsibility (Latané & Darley, If you want to understand how 1970). According to their theory, the greater the behavior occurs, one of the number of bystanders or witnesses to an event best ways to gain information that calls for helping behavior, the more the is to simply observe the responsibility for helping is perceived to be behavior in its natural context. 16 Surveys Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research Lists of questions to be Longitudinal research is a answered by research research design in which participants, and can be data-gathering is delivered as paper-and-pencil administered repeatedly over questionnaires, administered an extended period of time. electronically, or conducted Cross-sectional research, is verbally. a researcher compares Sample and Population multiple segments of the population at the same time. A sample is a subset of individuals selected from a Correlational Research population, which is the From word “correlation” which overall group of individuals means there is a relationship that the researchers are between two or more interested in. Researchers variables but relationship study the sample and seek to does not necessarily imply generalize their findings to the cause and effect. population. Does not indicate causation, since it is useful Archival Research because we can identify the strength and Relies on looking at past directions of variables, but no too much in cause records or data sets to look for and effect. interesting patterns or Correlational Coefficient relationships. A numeric number from -1 to +1 to indicate the strength of relationship. 2 TYPES Positive Correlations Variables move at same direction (eg. Ice cream crime rate increases as temperature gets warmer.) Negative Correlations Variables move at opposite direction. 17 CAUSALITY: CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS BY USE OF DATA The Experimental Hypothesis ▪ Can be formulated through direct observation or after careful review of previous research. Designing an Experiment ❖ Basic design comes in two groups Control Group Experimental Group Operational Definition Critical Research Issues Description on how we will You are probably knowledgeable now of measure the variable. the basic steps for psychological research. It includes making choices of the type of study to It is important because it allows others understand how and what conduct, discerning what measures to take and researcher measures in particular what ways of analyzing the results is can be most experiment. effective. Now, even after all these important decisions are made, psychologists still have to Two Types of Study consider several critical issues. We go first to the Single Blind Study- most fundamental of these issues: ethics. participants are unaware on The Ethics of Research which group they belong and the researcher knows which Most psychologists argue that deception participants are in each is sometimes necessary to prevent participants group. from being influenced by what they think a Double Blind Study- study’s true purpose is. An example of this would be an experiment conducted by Latané and Researcher and participants Darley to examine the helping behaviour of are both unaware to the group bystanders, in which another “bystander” assignment. simulates a seizure who happened to be a Independent and Dependent Variables confederate of the experimenters (Latané and Darley 1970). ▪ Dependent Variable- Is what researcher measures, to see how much If you knew that Latané and Darley were actually studying your helping behavior, wouldn’t effect the independent variable had. you automatically have been tempted to ▪ Independent variable- Variable that is intervene in the emergency? To avoid such controlled by experimenter. outcomes, a small proportion of research involves deception. Nonetheless, because research has the potential to violate the rights of 18 participants, psychologists are expected to One of the most common forms of experimental adhere to a strict set of ethical guidelines aimed bias is experimenter expectations: An at protecting participants (APA, 2002). Those experimenter unintentionally transmits cues to guidelines involve the following safeguards: participants about the way they are expected to behave in a given experimental condition. The Protection of participants from danger is that those expectations will bring about physical and mental harm. an “appropriate” behavior—one that otherwise The right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior. might not have occurred (Rosenthal, R., 2002, The assurance that participation 2003). in research is completely A related problem is participant voluntary. expectations about appropriate behavior. If you The necessity of informing participants about the nature of have ever been a participant in an experiment, procedures before their you probably developed guesses about what participation in the experiment. was expected of you. In fact, participants often All experiments must be develop their own hypotheses about what the reviewed by an independent experimenter hopes to learn from the study. If panel before being conducted participants form their own hypotheses, and then (Fisher et al., 2002; Fisher, 2003; act on their hunches, it may be their Smith, 2003). expectations, rather than the experimental manipulation, that produce the results (Rutherford et al., 2009). To guard against One of psychologists’ key ethical principles is participant expectations biasing the results of an informed consent. It is a document signed by experiment, the experimenter may try to disguise participants affirming that they have been told the true purpose of the experiment. Participants the basic outlines of the study and that they are who do not know that helping behavior is being aware of what their participation will involve. It studied, for example, are more apt to act in a also informs them of the fact that their “natural” way than they would if they knew. participation is purely voluntary and that they Sometimes it is impossible to hide the actual may terminate it any time. After the participation, purpose of research; when that is the case, other a debriefing or receiving an explanation of the techniques are available to prevent bias. Suppose you were interested in testing the ability study and procedures that were involved shall be of a new drug to alleviate the symptoms of given to the participants. However, informed severe depression. If you simply gave the drug consent and debriefing can be eliminated in to half your participants and not to the other half, experiments when risks are minimal, as in done the participants who were given the drug might in a purely observational study such as in a report feeling less depressed, merely because public place (Koocher, Norcross, & Hill, 2005; they knew they were getting a drug. Similarly, the Fallon, 2006; Barnett, Wise, & Johnson-Greene, participants who got nothing might report feeling 2007; Nagy, 2011). no better, because they knew that they were in a no-treatment control group. To solve this Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding problem, psychologists typically use a procedure Experimental Bias in which all the participants receive a treatment, but those in the control group receive only a Even the best-laid experimental plans placebo —a false treatment, such as a pill, are susceptible to experimental bias —factors “drug,” or other substance that has no significant that distort the way the independent variable chemical properties or active ingredient. affects the dependent variable in an experiment. 19 Because members of both groups are kept in the b) Self-report, experiments, correlations dark about whether they are getting a real or a c) Behavioural, self-report, experimental false treatment, any differences in outcome can be attributed to the quality of the drug and not to d) Behavioural, self-report, physiological the possible psychological effects of being administered a pill or other substance e) (a) and (d) (Rajagopal, 2006;Crum & Langer, 2007; 2. Which of the following is NOT a widely used Justman, 2011). research method in modern experimental However, there is one more safeguard psychology? that a careful researcher must apply in an a) The (true) experimental method. experiment such as this one. To overcome the possibility that experimenter expectations will b) The quasi-experimental method. affect the participant, the person who c) The introspective method. administers the drug shouldn’t know whether it is actually the true drug or the placebo. By keeping d) The case study method. both the participant and the experimenter who interacts with the participant “blind” to the nature 3. Experimental groups, treatment groups, and of the drug that is being administered, control groups represent ways to ____________ researchers can more accurately assess the outcome variables. effects of the drug. This method is known as the a) Manipulate double-blind procedure. b) Correlate EVALUATE c) Attract I. Identification d) Validate 1. An explanation for a phenomenon of interest is known as a e) Generalise _____________________. 4. In psychological research, the process of 2. To test this explanation, a researcher using multiple research methods to tackle the must state it in terms of a testable question same issue is referred to as: known as _______________. a) Experimentation 3. An experimenter is interested in b) Revision studying the relationship between hunger and aggression. She decides that she will measure c) Manipulation Check aggression by counting the number of times a participant will hit a punching bag. In this case, d) Measurement her ______________ definition of aggression is e) Triangulation the number of times the participant hits the bag. 5. Which of the following is true? II. Multiple Choice a) The dependent variable is manipulated by the 1. What are the main types of assessment experimenter. measures used by psychologists to study the outcomes of mental activity? b) Experimental control involves making every condition different in every respect except the a) Theories, hypotheses, tests treatment (i.e. the independent variable). 20  c) In a between-subjects experiment, control is refute the explanation, and typically achieved by a process of carefully communicating the findings. assigning participants to the right conditions. Research in psychology is guided by d) In a properly designed experiment, we can theories (broad explanations and infer that an observed difference must be due to predictions regarding phenomena of our manipulation of the independent variable. interest) and hypotheses (theory-based predictions stated in a way that allows III. them to be tested). 1. Ethical research begins with the concept of To test a hypothesis, researchers must informed consent. Before signing up to formulate an operational definition, which participate in an experiment, participants should translates the abstract concepts of the be informed of: hypothesis into the actual procedures used in the study. a. the procedure of the study, stated Research methods are generalized and generally. established ways of approaching b. the risks that may be involved. research questions. Research data comes in many different c. their right to withdraw at any time. formats and is gathered using a wide variety of methodologies. d. all of these. One of psychologists’ key ethical 2. List three benefits of using animals in principles is informed consent. An informed consent is a document signed psychological research. by participants affirming that they have 3. Deception is one means experimenters can been told the basic outlines of the study use to try to eliminate participants’ expectations. and that they are aware of what their True or false? participation will involve. Experiments are subject to a number of 4. A false treatment, such as a pill that has no biases, or threats. Experimenter significant chemical properties or active expectations can produce bias when an ingredient, is known as a _________. experimenter unintentionally transmits cues to participants about her or his 5. A study has shown that men differ from expectations regarding their behavior in women in their preference for ice cream flavors. a given experimental condition. This study was based on a sample of two men Participant expectations can also bias and three women. What might be wrong with this an experiment. Among the tools study? experimenters use to help eliminate bias are placebos and double-blind procedures. Placebo is a false treatment, such as a Chapter Summary pill, “drug,” or other substance, without any significant chemical properties or The scientific method is the approach active ingredient. psychologists use to understand behavior. It consists of four steps: identifying questions of interest, Contents lifted from Understanding Psychology formulating an explanation, carrying out by Robert S. Feldman, 12th edition research that is designed to support or 21 UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: Identify basic processes and systems in the biological bases of behavior, including parts of the neuron and the process of III. LESSON PROPER transmission of a signal between neurons. Discuss the effect of the endocrine system NEURONS on behavior. Neurons are the central Describe the nervous system and its building blocks of the nervous subdivisions and functions. system, 100 billion strong at birth. Like all cells, neurons consist of II. INTRODUCTION several different parts, each Behavior depends on the integration of serving a specialized function. numerous processes within the body. This A neuron’s outer surface integration is provided by the nervous is made up of a semipermeable system, with the help from the endocrine membrane. This membrane system. allows smaller molecules and Many aspects of behavior and mental molecules without an electrical functioning can be better understood with charge to pass through it, while some knowledge of the underlying biological stopping larger or highly charged processes. Our nervous system, sense molecules. organs, muscles, and glands enable us to be aware of and adjust to our new environment. The nucleus of the neuron is located in the Our perception of events depends on how soma, or cell body. The soma has our sense organs detect stimuli and how our branching extensions known as dendrites. brain interprets information coming from the The neuron is a small information processor, senses. Much of our behavior is motivated and dendrites serve as input sites where by such needs as hunger, thirst, and the signals are received from other neurons. avoidance of fatigue or pain. Our ability to These signals are transmitted electrically use language, to think, and to solve across the soma and down a major problems depends on a brain that is extension from the soma known as the axon, incredibly complex. Indeed, the specific which ends at multiple terminal buttons. The patterns of electrical and chemical events in terminal buttons contain synaptic vesicles the brain are the very basis of our most that house neurotransmitters, the chemical intricate though processes. messengers of the nervous system. Experiences and behaviors are based on Axons range in length from a fraction of an the activation of our nervous system, and inch to several feet. In some axons, glial that an understanding of its functioning is cells form a fatty substance known as the important for the study of psychology. myelin sheath, which coats the axon and acts as an insulator, increasing the speed at which the signal travels. The myelin sheath 22  is crucial for the normal operation of the must have a sufficient electrocal value which neurons within the nervous system: the loss will reduce the negativity of the nerve cell to the of the insulation it provides can be threshold of the action potential. In this manner, detrimental to normal function. there are subthreshold, threshold, and Information moves along a neuron in the suprathreshold stimuli. Subthreshold stimuli form of a neural impulse called an action cannot cause an action potential. Threshold potential – an electrochemical impulse that stimuli are of enough energy or potential to travels from the cell body down to the end of produce an action potential (nerve impulse). the axon. Each action potential is the result Suprathreshold stimuli also produce an action of movements by electrically charged potential, but their strength is higher than the molecules, known as ions, in and out of the threshold stimuli. neuron. ACTION POTENTIAL So, an action potential is generated when a stimulus changes the membrane potential to the values of threshold potential. The threshold potential is usually around -50 to -55 mV. It is important to know that the action potential behaves upon the all- or-none law. This means that any subthreshold stimulus will cause nothing, while threshold and suprathreshold stimuli produce a full response of the excitable cell. Is an action potential different depending on whether it’s caused by threshold or suprathreshold potential? The answer is no. The length and amplitude of an action potential are always the same. However, increasing the stimulus strength causes an increase in the frequency of an action potential. An action potential propagates along the nerve fiber without decreasing or weakening of amplitude and length. In addition, after one action An action potential is defined as a potential is generated, neurons become sudden, fast, transitory, and propagating refractory to stimuli for a certain period of time change of the resting membrane potential. Only in which they cannot generate another action neurons and muscle cells are capable of potential. generating an action potential; that property is called the excitability. From the aspect of ions, an action potential is caused by temporary changes in But what causes the action membrane permeability for diffusible ions. potential? From an electrical aspect, it is These changes cause ion channels to open caused by a stimulus with certain value and the ions to decrease their concentration expressed in millivolts [mV]. Not all stimuli can gradients. The value of threshold potential cause an action potential. Adequate stimulus 23 depends on the membrane permeability, intra- and extracellular concentration of ions, and the NERVOUS SYSTEM properties of the cell membrane. An action potential has several phases; hypopolarization, depolarization, overshoot, repolarization and hyperpolarization. Hypopolarization is the initial increase of the membrane potential to the value of the threshold potential. The threshold potential opens voltage-gated sodium channels and causes a large influx of sodium ions. This phase is called the depolarization. During depolarization, the inside of the cell becomes more and more electropositive, until the potential gets closer the electrochemical equilibrium for sodium of +61 mV. This phase The term nervous system refers to all neural of extreme positivity is the overshoot phase. tissue. This system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral After the overshoot, the sodium nervous system (PNS). The central nervous permeability suddenly decreases due to the system includes the brain (the part of the closing of its channels. The overshoot value of nervous system that resides in the skull) and the cell potential opens voltage-gated the spinal cord. potassium channels, which causes a large potassium efflux, decreasing the cell’s The peripheral nervous system includes the electropositivity. This phase is the remainder of the neural tissue in the rest of the repolarization phase; whose purpose is to body. Afferent nerves carry signals from the restore the resting membrane potential. body to the CNS, whereas efferent nerves carry Repolarization always leads first to signals from the CNS to the body. The PNS hyperpolarization, a state in which the consists of the somatic system, which carries membrane potential is more negative than the messages to and from the sense receptors, default membrane potential. But soon after muscles, and the surface of the body (for that, the membrane establishes again the conscious sensory functions and voluntary values of membrane potential. motor functions), and the autonomic system, which connects with the internal organs and ❖ To gain more knowledge about glands (for automatic and involuntary functions, Neurons and how they communicate watch these videos: such as the beating of the heart). The sensory o Structure and function of Neuron - nerves of the somatic system transmit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2 information about external stimulation from the kuU2mZzeU4 skin, muscles, and joints to the central nervous o How Neurons Communicate - system. That is how we become aware of pain, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hG pressure, and temperature variations. The DvvUNU-cw motor nerves of the somatic system carry 24  impulses from the central nervous system to At the most basic level, the function of the the muscles, where they initiate action. The nervous system is to control movement of the nerves of the autonomic system run to and from organism and to affect the environment (e.g., the internal organs, regulating processes such through pheromones). This is achieved by as respiration, heart rate, and digestion. sending signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. The output from the nervous system derives from signals that travel to muscle cells, causing muscles to be activated, and from signals that travel to endocrine cells, causing hormones to be released into the bloodstream or other internal fluids. The input to the nervous system derives from sensory cells of widely varying types, which transmute physical modalities such as light and sound into neural activity. Internally, the nervous system contains complex webs of connections between nerve cells that allow it to generate patterns of activity that depend only partly on sensory input. The nervous system is also capable of storing information over time, by dynamically modifying the strength of connections between neurons, as well as other mechanisms. ❖ This video offers an in- depth discussion of the Nervous System and its divisions - Nervous systems are found in almost all https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGGU multicellular animals, but vary greatly in -fGGycA complexity. The only multicellular animals that have no nervous system at all are sponges and microscopic bloblike organisms called ENDOCRINE SYSTEM placozoans and mesozoans. The nervous systems of ctenophores (comb jellies) and cnidarians (e.g., anemones, hydras, corals and jellyfishes) consist of a diffuse nerve net. All other types of animals, with the exception of echinoderms and a few types of worms, have a nervous system containing a brain, a central cord (or two cords running in parallel), and nerves radiating from the brain and central cord. The size of the nervous system ranges from a few hundred cells in the simplest worms, to on the order of 100 billion cells in humans. 25  The endocrine system acts more slowly, deal with stress and emergencies: epinephrine indirectly affecting the activities of cell groups (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). throughout the body. It does so by means of Gonads. In females, the ovaries produce hormones, chemicals secreted by the endocrine hormones that regulate sexual development, glands into the bloodstream and transported to ovulation, and growth of sex organs. In males, the other parts of the body, where they have specific testes produce hormones that regulate sexual effects on cells that recognize their message development, production of sperm, and growth of sex organs. Hormones act in various ways on cells of different types. Each target cell is equipped with ❖ To understand how Hormones work, receptors that recognize only the hormone watch this video: molecules that act on that cell. The receptors pull https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=- those molecules out of the bloodstream and into SPRPkLoKp8 the cell. Some endocrine glands are activated by the nervous system, and others are activated by IV. SAMPLE SITUATION changes in the internal chemical state of the body. NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS In many ways, the hypothalamus, which Neurodegenerative disorders are is located in the lower middle part of the brain, illnesses characterized by a loss of nervous controls much of the endocrine system by system functioning that are usually caused by regulating the pituitary gland, which is located neuronal death. These diseases generally directly below and outside the brain. The worsen over time as more and more neurons hypothalamus is often called the control center die. The symptoms of a particular of the endocrine system. One of the major neurodegenerative disease are related to where endocrine glands is the pituitary gland. This in the nervous system the death of neurons gland is partly an outgrowth of the brain and lies occurs. The death of these neurons causes just below the hypothalamus. The pituitary has problems in balance and walking. been called the ‘master gland’ because it Neurodegenerative disorders include produces the most different hormones and Huntington’s disease, amyotrophic lateral controls the secretion activity of other endocrine sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer’s disease, other glands. One of the pituitary hormones, growth dementia disorders, and Parkinson’s disease. In this section, Alzheimer’s disease will be hormone, has the crucial job of controlling the discussed in more depth. body’s growth. Alzheimer’s Disease The Pancreas is the organ regulates the level of sugar in the bloodstream by secreting insulin. The Thyroid is the gland, which is located in the neck, regulates metabolism through the secretion of hormones. The outside part) secretes hormones that regulate sugar and salt balances and help the body resist stress; they are also responsible for growth of pubic hair, a secondary sexual characteristic. The adrenal medulla (inside part) secretes two hormones that arouse the body to 26 Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause probability of developing the disease. Many of dementia in the elderly. In 2012, an estimated other genes have been identified that may be 5.4 million Americans suffered from Alzheimer’s involved in the pathology. Unfortunately, there disease. Payments for their care are estimated is no cure for Alzheimer’s disease. Current at $200 billion. Roughly one in every eight people treatments focus on managing the symptoms of age 65 or older has the disease. Due to the aging the disease. Because decrease in the activity of the baby-boomer generation, there are of cholinergic neurons (neurons that use the projected to be as many as 13 million neurotransmitter acetylcholine) is common in Alzheimer’s patients in the United States in the Alzheimer’s disease, several drugs used to year 2050. Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease treat the disease work by increasing include disruptive memory loss, confusion about time or place, difficulty planning or executing acetylcholine neurotransmission, often by tasks, poor judgement, and personality changes. inhibiting the enzyme that breaks down Problems smelling certain