Indian Geography PDF

SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 1 Geography Notes Introduction of India India is a prominent country of South Asia which is located in Northe...

SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 1 Geography Notes Introduction of India India is a prominent country of South Asia which is located in Northern and Eastern Hemisphere. Shape - The shape of India is almost quadrilateral. The total area of India is 32,87,263 sq. km and is 7th largest country in the world in terms of area. It covers 2.4% of the world’s surface area. India is on 2nd position in terms of population. According to the Census of 2011, India had a population of 121 crores which was 17.5% of the world’s population. Extent - The mainland of India is spread from 8°4’ N to 37°6’ N latitude and from 68°7’ E to 97°25’ E longitude. India’s Southernmost Point: - 6°45’ N latitude Indira Point (located on Great Nicobar Island) Earlier it was also called Pygmalion point or Parson point. Indian Mainland’s Southernmost Point: - 8°4 N latitude (Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu) Equator is only 876 Km from Kanyakumari. India’s Northernmost Point: - 37° 6’ N latitude (Indira Col)  SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 2 Geography Notes India’s Westernmost Point: - 68°7’ E longitude (Guhar Moti village, Kutch district, Gujarat) India’s Easternmost Point: - 97° 25’ E longitude (Kibithu village, Anjaw district, Arunachal Pradesh) The Northernmost and Southernmost Points of the Indian Mainland are at a distance of 30° latitude and the Easternmost and Westernmost points are 30° longitude apart. The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of Indian mainland is 30° still the North-South extent (3214km) is more than East-West extent (2933km) because when we move towards poles, the distance between latitudes decreases, while the longitudes remain almost equidistant.  SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 3 Geography Notes Impact of Latitudinal Extent: Due to there being almost 30° latitudinal extent, various types of climatic conditions are found in India and diversity is also seen in soil and vegetation types. Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of India and divides India into tropical and Temperate areas. Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States of India 1. Gujarat 2. Rajasthan 3. Madhya Pradesh 4. Chhattisgarh 5. Jharkhand 6. West Bengal 7. Tripura 8. Mizoram  SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 4 Geography Notes Impact of Longitudes: Due to almost 30° longitudinal extent, there is a difference of almost 2 hours between the local time of Easternmost and Westernmost part of India. The local time of longitude 82½° E passing near Allahabad (Prayagraj) is taken as Indian Standard Time (IST) and Indian Standard Time is 5 ½ hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). 82½° E longitude passes through 5 major states 1. Uttar Pradesh 2. Madhya Pradesh 3. Chhattisgarh 4. Odisha 5. Andhra Pradesh Border of India  SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 5 Geography Notes Land Boundary Coastal Boundary 7516.6 km 15200 km (15,106.7 km) Mainland 1. Bangladesh 4096.7 km 6100km (5422.6km) 1. Gujarat 2. China 3488 km 2. Andhra Pradesh 3. Pakistan 3323 km 3. Tamil Nadu 4. Maharashtra 4. Nepal 1751 km 5. Kerala 5. Myanmar 1643 km 6. Odisha 7. Karnataka 6. Bhutan 699 km 8. West Bengal 7. Afghanistan 106 km 9. Goa 10. Puducherry Radcliff Line- Border 11. Daman-Diu between India-Pakistan Islands and India-Bangladesh 2. McMahon Line- India- 2094 km China 1. Andaman- Nicobar 3. Durand Line- India- 2. Lakshadweep Afghanistan Country States Situated on Border Pakistan Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Jammu-Kashmir, Ladakh China Jammu Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Nepal Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim Bhutan Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh Bangladesh West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram Myanmar Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram Afghanistan Ladakh  SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 6 Geography Notes Oceanic Extension To the East of Peninsular Plateau is Bay of Bengal and to the West of it is Arabian Sea. The Mean Sea Level of Bay of Bengal is higher than that of Arabian Sea (Mean Sea Level is the)  SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 7 Geography Notes India’s mean sea level was earlier calculated at Mumbai and is presently calculated at Chennai. India’s jurisdiction area in the adjoining seas is categorised through the following parts- 1. Territorial Sea- This extends up to 12 nautical miles from the base line 2. Contiguous Sea- This extends up to 24 nautical miles from base line. India has got rights like imposition of custom duty and other financial rights. 3. Exclusive Economic Zone- This extends up to 200 nautical miles from base line. India has exclusive rights to scientific research, construction of new islands and utilization of natural resources in this area. Beyond this, open ocean extends where all countries have got equal rights. Benefits of Coastal Boundary Coastal boundary provides India with the title of subcontinent. Coastal boundary keeps the climate of Southern India moderate. Due to the coastal boundary, India receives Monsoon rains. Ports situated on coastal boundary promote international trade.  SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 8 Geography Notes Due to the coastal boundary, India can remain in contact with the neighbouring countries easily. Coastal boundary ensures India’s reach and rights over oceanic resources. Coastal boundary is important with respect to security and strategic matters. Besides the above benefits of coastal border, there are some drawbacks like tsunami and tropical cyclones which India has to face, threat of sea pirates and additional expenditure on securing the border. Despite these negative aspects, coastal borders have more beneficial aspects therefore coastal border is considered a blessing for India. Indian Subcontinent: Subcontinent is that part of the continent which maintains its separate geographical identity. India and its nearby countries have a separate identity in the Asia continent because of its unique geographical location. The north-western, northern and north-eastern parts of India are insurmountable due to the presence of mountain ranges like Kirthar, Sulaiman, Hindukush, Himalayas, Purvanchal and Arakon Yoma. The southern part of India is surrounded by Indian ocean. Therefore, India is naturally separated from the other parts of Asia continent due to which it is called a subcontinent. But along with India, Indian subcontinent mainly includes 7 countries which are as follows. 1. India 2. Pakistan 3. Nepal 4. Bhutan 5. Bangladesh 6. Sri Lanka 7. Maldives India’s Political Divisions: - India has 28 States and 8 Union Territories Some Facts Related to India: - Largest State- Rajasthan Smallest State- Goa Largest Union Territory- Ladakh Smallest Union Territory- Lakshadweep Largest District- Kutch (Gujarat) Smallest District- Mahe (Puducherry) Largest State in terms of Population- Uttar Pradesh Smallest State in terms of Population - Sikkim  SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 9 Geography Notes The state which touches maximum other states is Uttar Pradesh, which touches the boundary of 8 other states. These includes Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar and Jharkhand. Palk Strait separates India from Sri Lanka, and joins Bay of Bengal with Palk Bay. Adam’s Bridge is situated between India and Sri Lanka. To the north of Adam’s Bridge lies Palk Bay and to its south, Gulf of Mannar is situated. Gulf of Mannar also separates India from Sri Lanka. India’s Highest Point: (8611 m) K2 (Godwin Austen) India’s Deepest Point: (-2m) Kuttanad (Alappuzha and Kottayam district of Kerala) Geography Notes India's Physiographic Divisions  The diversity in geological structure gives birth to the diverse relief and physical features in the country. All types of relief features like mountains, hills, plateaus and plains are found here. Out of India's total area, 10.5% area is mountainous, 18.6% hilly, 27.7 % plateau and rest 43.2% plains.  On the basis of relief features, India is divided into following physical or physiographic divisions - 1. Himalayan Mountain Region (Northern Mountain Region) 2. Northern Plain Region 3. Peninsular Plateau Region 4. Coastal Plains 5. Island Groups Page No. Geography Notes Himalayan Mountain Region  This mountain region is located in the northern region of India in the shape of a great arc and spread over 5 lakh sq. km. These young-folded mountains extend from 74°E to 96° E longitude covering around 22 longitudes. This region contains many snow-covered peaks which are the source of many prominent rivers of India. Various theories have been pro- posed regarding the origin of this region.  Origin of Himalayas: - Two theories are prominent among the various theories given regarding the origin of Himalayas. 1. Kober's Geosyncline Theory 2. Plate Tectonics Theory  Kober's Geosyncline Theory: - Kober has called geosynclines as cradle of mountains. Geo- synclines are long, narrow and shallow seas. According to Kober, 7 crore years ago in place of Himalayas, Tethys Sea was present, to the north of which was the landmass Angaraland and on the south was Gondwanaland. Due to the rivers flowing from the landmasses (forelands), sediments were being depos- ited in the Tethys Geosyncline. Although geosyncline is shallow but due to the weight of the deposited sediments, its base was being subsided. As a result of the subsidence of the base of the Tethys geosyncline compressional force started on the forelands due to which folding of sediments took place and Himalayas were formed. The region less or unaffected by the folding is present in the form of Tibetan Plateau. Page No. Geography Notes  Plate Tectonics Theory: - This principle best describes the process of origin of Himalayas. According to this theory, 7 crore years ago, the Indian plate moved in the north-east direc- tion towards the Eurasian Plate to the North. Due to convergence of these plates folding of sediments of Tethys Sea started and Himalayas were formed. Himalayas were formed during Tertiary Period due to which they are called young folded mountains.  Geographical Divisions of Himalayas: - On the basis of geography, there are three parts of Himalayas- 1. Trans Himalayas 2. Main Himalayas 3. Purvanchal  Trans Himalayas: This is the northernmost part of the Himalayan mountain region which is mainly located in Ladakh and Tibet. These are also called Tibet Himalayas. This part ex- tends from north-west to north-east direction over 1000 km. The width of this part is around 250 km and the average height is around 4000 m. Due to these being situated on the rain-shadow region of the Main Himalayas, arid condi- tions are found here and there is lack of vegetation in this region. Page No. Geography Notes Three main mountain ranges are included in Trans Himalayas Page No. Geography Notes 1. Karakoram Range: This is the northernmost Trans-Himalayan Range. Karakoram Range extends up to Pamir Knot in the west and to the east it merges into Kailash Range. This is the highest range of Trans- Himalayas and it has world's second highest and India's highest mountain peak Mount Goodwin Austin (K2) [8611m]. This range is famous for Alpine Glaciers like- Batura, Hispar (61km), Biafo(63km), Baltoro (62km), Siachen (72km) etc. Nubra river emerges from Siachen Glacier and Siachen Glacier is located within Nubra Valley only. Nubra Valley is a three-armed valley which is made by the confluence of Shyok and Nubra rivers and located between Karakorum and Ladakh Valley. The ancient name of this valley is Dumra (valley of flowers). In this valley region, camels with two humps are also found and it is a cold arid desert region. 2. Ladakh Range: This range is located to the south of Karakorum Range. The extension of this range in Tibet is called Kailash Mountains. Mansarovar Lake is located to the south of Kailash Range. The highest peak of this range is Rakaposhi (7788m). Khardung La is an important pass located in this range which connects Indus river valley with Shyok and Nubra river valleys. Ladakh Plateau, which is an inter-montane plateau, is located between Karakorum and Ladakh Ranges. Ladakh Plateau is the highest plateau of India, where cold arid desert conditions are found. Many saline lakes are situated on this plateau. 3. Zanskar Range: This is the southernmost range of Trans- Himalayas. This range extends from Suru River Valley in the north to Karnali river in the south-east and is mainly located in Jammu Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Tibet. The highest peak of this range is Kamet which is located on Uttarakhand- Tibet border. Indus valley is located between this range and Ladakh Range. Main Himalaya This is the second part of Himalayan Mountain Region which is situated on the south of Trans-Himalayas. Between Trans-Himalaya and Main Himalayas, Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone is located. Main Himalayas are spread over India, Nepal, Tibet and Bhutan. This part extends over 2400 km between Indus valley in the West and Brahmaputra valley in the East. On the both sides of Main Himalayas, Syntaxial bends are present. Himalaya have 2 rounded arms that are present Page No. Geography Notes in the form of Hindukush, Sulaiman and Kirthar Range in the West and as Purvanchal and Arakan Yoma in the east. The width of Main Himalayas is more in the west (400 km) and less in the east (150 km). The northern slopes of Himalayas are gentle and the southern slope is steeper. Due to northern slope being gentler, more glaciers are found here. The snowline is found at the height of 5500 m in the Western Himalayas and at 4500 m in the Eastern Himalayas because of more rainfall in the Eastern Himalayas. While the Western Himalayas attain height gradually, The Eastern Himalayas attain their height abruptly. That is why Eastern Himalayas can be seen from the plains while Western Himalayas cannot. Three main ranges of Main Himalayas are-  Great Himalayas: This is the northernmost range of the Himalayas which extends over 2400 km from Nanga Parbat in the west to Namcha Barwa in the east. The average height of this range is 2400 km and average width is 25 km. This is the highest mountain range in the world that is covered with snow all year long. Therefore, it is also called Himadri. This range has world's highest mountain peak, Mount Everest (8848 m). Everest is called Chomolungma in Tibetan and Sagarmatha in Nepal. This range contains major glaciers like Gangotri, Yamunotri, Satopanth, Pindar, Milan which are the source of major Indian rivers. In the local language of North India, passes are called La. नं गा पवत Nanga Parbat नामचा बरवा Nanga Parbat Page No. Geography Notes  Lesser Himalayas: This range is also known by the names of Middle Himalayas or Himachal Himalayas and is located to the south of Greater Himalayas. Between Greater Himalayas and Lesser Himalayas, Main Central Thrust is present. The height of these varies from 3700 m to 4500 m, and width by 50 to 80 km. Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar, Mussoorie, Nagtibba, Mahabharat, Dokya, Black Mountain ranges are part of this mountain range. Between Greater and Lesser Himalayas, valleys like Kashmir Valley, Kullu Valley, Kangra Valley and Kathmandu Valley are located. Temperate Grasslands are found in these ranges which are called Murg in J&K, Bugyal and Payala in Uttarakhand. These temperate grasslands are alpine meadows where local communities bring their livestock for grazing. These grasslands are covered with snow during winters. This range contains passes like Banihal in Pir Panjal, tourist places like Shimla, Manali, Nainital, Dharamshala, Mussoorie etc. Between Middle Himalayas and Shiwaliks, Main Boundary Thrust is present. Karewa: Lacustrine Plains found in Kashmir Valley are called Karewas. These have coarse glacial sediments as well as sediments brought by rivers. These are very fertile and are used for Saffron cultivation. Transhumance: The seasonal migration of local communities along with their animals is called Transhumance. Local communities migrate in search of fodder and water. Communi- ties like Gujjars and Bakarwals transmigrate in Himalayan region. 3700 & 4500 eh- 50 fdeh 1 2 3 4 6 7  Shiwalik: This is the southernmost range of Main Himalayas. This range is present in frag- mented form. Its height varies from 500 to 1500 m and width varies from 10-50 km. Shiwalik ranges are called as Jammu Hills, Dudhwa, Dhang in Uttarakhand, Churia Ghat in Nepal, Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi in Arunachal Pradesh. Flat valleys located between Shiwalik and Middle Himalayas are called Doon in Western Himalayan region and Dwar in Eastern Himalayan Region Eg. Dehradun, Kotlidun, Pattidun, Nihang Dwar etc. These valleys are used for Rice cultivation. In Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, during Monsoons, seasonal streams are formed in Shiwalik Region which are called Chos. These streams divide Shiwalik into many parts after eroding it. Between Shiwalik Mountains and Northern Plain Region lies Main Frontal Thrust. 10 & 50 fdeh Page No. Geography Notes  Purvanchal : The hills spread over North- East India form North to South are collectively called Purvanchal. These hills were formed due to convergence of Indian and Burma Plate. Purvanchal mainly includes Patkai Bum (Arunachal Pradesh), Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, Mizo Hills, Tripura Hills, Barail Hills (Assam and Nagaland) and Laimatol Hills (Manipur). These hills are made of Sandstone. Monsoon winds bring heavy rains to these areas, due to which dense vegetation and rich biodiversity is found here. It is one of the 36 Biodiversity Hotspots. Mizo Hills is also called Lushai Hills, and its highest peak is Blue Mountain which is also called Phawngpui. Here Phawngpui National Park is also located. (Mizoram is also called Molasses Basin because it is made of soft or unconsolidated rocks).  Hkkjrh; o cekZ IysV ds vfHklj.k ls fufeZr Formed by convergence of Indian and Burma plate  ckyw iRFkj ls cuh igkfM+;k¡ Hills formed of Sandstone Saramati  भारी वषा ा Heavy rainfall is received  गहन वन ित तथा जै विविवधता सं प Dense vegetation and Biodiversity  36 हॉट ॉट (त थलों) मे स िलत one of the 36 hotspots of the world Lushai Hills (लु साई पहािड़याँ )  मोले िसस बेिसन (िमज़ोरम) – असंगिठत Highest peak सव चोटी – च ानी अवसादों से बना बेिसन (घाटी Blue Mt. (Phawngpui फां गपु ई) े ) Molassis Basin (Mizoram) – basin made up of unconsolidated deposits.  Regional Division of Himalayas : Different rivers have divided Himalayas in to four ma- jor regional division, which are as follows- Kashmir Himalaya क ीर िहमालय Kumaon Himalaya कुमाऊँ िहमालय िस ु Indus Nepal Himalaya ने पाल िहमालय Assam Himalaya क ीर िहमालय असम िहमालय Satluj सतलज Kashmir Himalaya Kali काली कुमाऊँ िहमालय Kumaon Himalaya Teesta ती ा ने पाल िहमालय Nepal Himalaya 1. Kashmir Himalayas: This part is also called Punjab Himalaya and Himachal Himalayas. This part is spread between Indus and Sutlej river over 560 km. Here Himalayas attain height gradually, and width of Himalayas is maximum (250-400 km). Major peaks of this part are Zanskar, Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar etc. In this part passes like Zojila, Burzil La, Baralacha La etc. are found. Page No. Geography Notes Kashmir Himalaya क ीर िहमालय 56o km (West to East) िस ु Indus JK, Ladakh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh Punjab Himalaya, Himachal Himalaya पंजाब िहमालय, िहमाचल िहमालय क ीर िहमालय Satluj सतलज Kashmir Himalaya Maximum width (400 km) सवािधक चौड़ाई Zaskar, Pir Panjal ranges जा र, पीर पंजाल Zojila, Burzi La passes जोजीला, बु िजला दर Height gradually increases ऊँचाई िमक प से बढ़ती है । 2. Kumaun Himalayas: - This part extends from Sutlej to Kali river over 320 km. This part is mainly located in Uttarakhand and is higher in comparison with Kashmir Himalayas. Major peaks like Nanda Devi, Kamet, Trishul, Badrinath, Kedarnath as well as glaciers like Gangotri, Yamunotri are found which are the sources of major Indian rivers. Nanda Devi is the high- est peak of this part. Kumaon Himalaya कुमाऊँ िहमालय 320 km (west to east) Higher than Kashmir Himalaya क ीर िहमालय से ऊँचा Uttarakhand उ राख Satluj सतलज Major peak Nandadevi, Kamet, Trishul, Kali काली Kedarnath, Badrinath कुमाऊँ िहमालय Kumaon Himalaya मु ख चोिटयाँ – नं दादे वी, कामे ट, ि शू ल, केदारनाथ, ब ीनाथ Glaciers – Gangotri, Yamunotri िहमनद – गंगो ी, यमु नो ी Pilgrimages तीथ थल 3. Nepal Himalayas: - This part is spread over 800 km between Kali and Teesta river. Most of this part is found in Nepal and some part in Tibet, Sikkim and West Bengal (Darjeeling). The width of Himalayas in this part is very less but this is the highest part also. Here the highest peak in the world Mount Everest and other major peaks like Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna etc are located. Page No. Geography Notes Nepal Himalaya नेपाल िहमालय 800 km (west to east) Nepal, Sikkim, West Bengal Highest range सव े णी Less Width कम चौड़ाई Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna माउं ट एवरे , कंचनजंगा, मकालू, धौलािगरी, अ पू णा Kali काली Teesta ती ा ने पाल िहमालय Nepal Himalaya 4. Assam Himalayas: - This part is spread between Teesta and Dihang river over 720 km. This part is spread over Tibet, Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh and partially in Assam. The height of Himalayas again starts decreasing and the width of Himalayas found here is smallest. Major peaks are Namcha Barwa, Kula Kangri, Chomolahri(Jomolhari), Pauunri etc. Assam Himalaya असम िहमालय 720 km west to east Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Least width सबसे कम ऊँचाई Height decreases gradually ऊँचाई िमक प से कम होती है । Teesta ती ा Page No. Geography Notes Northern Plain Region This Plain region has been formed by the deposition of sediments by the rivers. It is the world’s most extensive alluvial plain and it is India’s latest physiographic division this region was formed in quaternions period. This fertile plain region is used for agriculture and highest population density is found is this region. 480 km 185 m 150 km 3200 km 2000 m गहराई This plain region extends over an area of 7 lakh Sq. Km. Its width is around 240-320 Km. and in this region alluvial deposits are found up to the depth of 2000 m. It is flat plain region with gentle slope. This plain region can be divided into four parts. 1. Rajasthan plains 2. Satluj plains 3. Ganga plains 4. Brahmaputra Plains Page No. Geography Notes 1. Rajasthan Plains: This plain region lies to the west of Aravali Mountain. Luni is the major river of this region. Arid and semi-arid conditions are found in this plain region. Therefore, many saline lakes are found here. The slope of this plain is from North-East towards South West. On the Basis of rainfall this plain region can be divided into two parts :- I. Rajasthan Bangar II. Marusthali I. Rajasthan Bangar: This part lies between Aravali mountain and 25 Cm. isohyet line. Around 25 to 50 cm. Rainfall is received here. Semi-arid conditions are found in this region. II. Marusthali: This part lies between 25 cm. isohyet line and Radcliffe line. Less than 25 Cm. Rainfall is received here and desert like conditions are found here. 2. Satluj Plains: Ravi Beas Satluj Ghagghar Yamuna Page No. Geography Notes This plain region is formed by Ravi, Beas and Satluj rives. It mainly lics in Punjab and Haryana. Two Major Doabs are found in these regions which are Bari and Bist. Malwa Plains lie between Satluj and Ghagghar rivers and Haryanan-Bhiwani Bagar is located between Ghagghar Rivers and Yamuna River. Highest Productivity is found in Satluj Plain region. The slope of this plain region is from North-East-toward South-West. 3. Ganga Plains: Rohilkhand xaxk ds eSnku Ganga Plains (Western U.P) Awadh (Lucknow) Mithila (North Bihar) Magadh (South Bihar) Barind (Btwn Kosi – Mahananda) Rarh (Btwn Damodar – Brahmaputra Subarnrekha) Ganga Kosi Rohilkhand Awadh Mithila Magadh Damodar Rarh Subarnrekha This Plain region is formed by Ganga and its tributaries. The slope of this plain region is from North-West towards South-East. Mainly extends in U.P. Bihar and West Bengal. This Plain region has various regional names such as Rohilkhand in western U.P. Awadh Plains near Lakhnow. Mithila to the north of Ganga in Bihar, Magadh to the south of Ganga in Bihar, Barind between Kosi and Mahananda rivers and Rash between Damodar and Subarnrekha rivers. It is India’s most extended plain. Highest population density and highest production is found in this region. 4. Brahmaputra Plains: Brahmaputra पु सािदया Sadiya धुबरी Dhubri Page No. Geography Notes This plain region is formed by Brahmaputra and its tributaries. It extends from Dhubri to Sadiya over a distance of 650 Km. It is a narrow plain region which is around 100 Km. broad. This plain region mainly lies in Assam. The slope of this region is from North-East towards South-West. It is used for Jute and rice cultivation. Physiographic Division of Plains: 1. Bhabar: This plain is formed by large sediments brought by rivers in the foothill areas of the Himalayan Mountain. Found in the form of the belt over a width of around 8 to 15 km from the foot hill region of the Himalayas. River flows below the big sediments therefore; river becomes invisible on the surface. This plain region is not useful for agriculture. 2. Tarai: Found in South of Bhabar over a width of 15-30 km. In this plain region river again becomes visible on the surface. Here the flow of water is irregular. Dense vegetation and diverse wildlife is found here. In Punjab & U.P. agriculture is done in tarai region. Now, tarai region is mainly found in North eastern states. 3. Khadar: In the flood plain region of river new sediments get deposited every year leading to the formation of Khadar plain. These are very fertile plains highest productivity is found in these planes. In Punjab, Khadar plains are known as bet. 4. Bangar: These are the plains formed of old alluvial sediments found near Khadar region over an elevated surface. Lumps of calcium are found in this plain region, which are called Kankar. Highest production is found in these plains. In bangar region, due to high erosion, the upper fine soil gets destroyed and later kankar laden soil remains behind which is called bhoor. Page No. Geography Notes Northern Western Desert region It is large arid region in North Western India. The total area of Thar desert is 2 lakh sq km. 85% of Thar desert is in India and 15% in Pakistan. 60% of the desert lies in Rajasthan and rest in Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana. It mainly includes arid and semi-arid region. Luni is the major river of this region and many saline lakes are found here. Thar desert covers the whole of western Rajasthan. Some geographers include it in the study of the peninsular India because the base rocks of the desert are considered as the continu- ation of the rocks of deccan plateau. Other geographers consider it logical to study the desert with the plains because of its continuity with the latter. But in reality, this region possesses its own characteristics and the problems as well, therefore, it has been included as a separate geo- graphical region. Origin of Thar Desert There are various views regarding the origin of Thar desert. Some experts believe that the presence of sand in the region owes its existence due to the disintegration of local rocks. But there are indications of erosion of surface rocks by running water. Therefore, other experts believe that formerly the climate of the region would have been humid but gradually it became dry and the region was converted into a desert. Fossil Wood Park in Akal near Jaisalmer bears the testimony to this fact. Millions of years old fossils of huge trees have been excavated in Aakal. Many geologists believe that formerly it was a very fertile region drained by many big rivers. The region was uplifted due to tectonic activities. Resultantly, the drainage of the region was diverted towards Ganga and Indus river systems, causing dry conditions in the region. La Touché was of the view that the prevailing south - western storms in the region continuously brought sand with them and it was deposited in the region however, the hypothesis of climate drought is generally more acceptable. Page No. Geography Notes Importance of Thar Desert  Excessive summer heating in the region develops intense low pressure which attracts south- west monsoon.  Cattle rearing and herding is the main occupation in the drier parts of the desert.  Various minerals are found in this region. Mica, gypsum, asbestos, coal, copper, soapstone, marble, building stones, rock phosphate, feldspar, mineral oil, natural gas etc. are the main minerals found in this region.  There are large possibilities of agricultural development through irrigational facilities be- cause the soils of the region are fertile.  It attracts tourists due to its physiographic peculiarities. Yearly held desert festivals of Jaisalmer bears the testimony to this fact.  The region has strategic importance due to its location on the international border with Pakistan. Page No. Geography Notes Coastal Plains  This plain is 6000 km long extended from Kutch Peninsula to Swarnarekha River. Is wide in distance.  This plain is formed by sediments deposited by rivers.  This plain region can be divided into 2 major parts- A. Western Coastal Plains B. Eastern Coastal Plains A. Western Coastal plains: -  This plain extends from Kutch to Kanyakumari.  These are narrow plains as the rivers of this region form the estuary. The main reasons of estuary formation - i. Short Course ii. High speed iii. Hard rock floor iv Tidal activities -  These plains are about 50-100 km long.  Their average slope is 64 km.  Various regional divisions of this plain are found. Such as 1. Kutch 2. Kathiawar 3. Gujarat 4. Konkan 5. Kannada 6. Malabar 1. Kutch Plain:  This plain is formed by sediments deposited by the Indus River.  It is wide and flat.  Due to tidal activities, the soil here has very high salinity, so this plain is not useful for agriculture. 2. Plains of Kathiawar:  These plains are formed by the rivers originating from the Mandav hills.  These are narrow plainss. 3. Plains of Gujarat:  It is a plain located in the southern part of Gujarat.  This plain is formed by rivers like Mahi, Sabarmati, Narmada and Tapi.  These are wide and flat plains, which are used for agriculture. 4. Konkan Plain:  This plain is mainly located in Maharashtra and Goa.  It is a narrow, Uneven and Rough plain. Page No. Geography Notes  Mango, coconut and cashew are cultivated in this plain area.  Pre-monsoon rainfall occurring in this part is called Mango Shower. Which is beneficial for mango cultivation. (NCERT- Mango Shower occurs in Karnataka and Kerala) 5. Kannada Plain:  This plain is mainly located in Karnataka.  Rivers form a waterfall while falling in this plain.  Such as the Saravati river - here forms the Jog Waterfall.  Jog fall is also called Gerosopa or Mahatma Gandhi waterfall.  The pre-monsoon rainfall in this plain is called the Cherry Blossom, which is beneficial for the cultivation of coffee. (NCERT-Cherry Blossom in KERALA) 6. Malabar Plains:  This plain is mainly located in Kerala.  lagoon lakes are found in coastal areas of this plain region, which are called Kayal in the local language. Major lakes here  Vembanad  Om Ashtamudi  Punnamada - Every year the Nehru Trophy Vallamkali boat race is organised here 2. Eastern Coastal Plain:  The eastern coastal plain is situated from Swarnarekha to Kanyakumari.  These plains are broad because the rivers here form deltas.  The width of these plains is about 100-150 Km. or more than that.  The plain region between the Krishna River from the Swarnarekha is called the 'North- ern Circars'.  The plain between Krishna river to Kanyakumari is called 'Koramandal coast'.  Regional division of the plains are as follows (a) Utkal plains:  This plain is mainly located in Orissa.  These plains are formed by Mahanadi  In Southern part of these plains Chilka Lake is located.  It is a lagoon lake.  It is the largest saline lake in India.  Chilka Lake is a major wetland area. Hence it is included in the Ramsar list. Wheeler isladn is located near this coast and it is also known as kalam island. Chandipur beach is also located here where water recedes a lot during ebb. (b) Andhra plains:  These plains are formed by sediments deposited by Godavari and Krishna river.  In the central part of these plains lies the sweet water lake 'Kolleru'.  A lagoon lake called 'Pulicat' is located in the southern part of this plain.  Sri Harikota Island is located in Pulicat Lake. On which satish Dhawan Space centre is located. Page No. Geography Notes (c) Tamil Nadu Plains:  This plain is formed by the river Kaveri.  The delta region of the Kaveri River is used for rice cultivation. Therefore, this plain is also known as the 'food bowel' of South India. Difference between Western and Eastern Coastal Plain Western coastal plains Eastern coastal plain 1 This plain is located between Kutch 1 This plain is situated between to Kanyakumari. Kanyakumari by the Swarnarekha River. 2 Maximum rivers of this plain form 2 The maximum of this plain forms the the river Estuary. delta. 3 Major rivers of this plain are 3 Major rivers here are Mahanadi, Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri. Saravati etc. 4 These are narrow plains whose 4 These are wide plains; whose width is width is found between 50-100 km. about 100-150km or more. 5 It is a rugged rocky plain. 5 These plains are flat plain. 6 These plains receive heavy rainfall 6 The southwest and north-east monsoon by the south-west monsoon winds. winds receive rainfall in these plains. 7 Laterite soil is found here due to 7 Alluvial soil is found in this plain. excess rainfall. 8 Commercial farming is done here. 8 Food grains are mainly produced here. Mango, Cashew, Coconut Eg. Rice 9 Lagoon lakes are found in the 9 The lagoon lakes are mainly found here southern part of this plain. in the northern and central part. 10 The rivers here make waterfall. 10 The rivers here form deltas. Hence, Which are used for hydropower they are used for shipping. generation. Page No. Geography Notes Peninsular Plateau Region  It is a part of the peninsula in the south of India, it was part of the Gondwana land. It is the oldest physical region of India. It is an example of a shield (old plateau). It is the most mineral rich region of India. It is the largest physiographic division of India which is 16 lakh sq km in area. The height of this plateau region is about 600-900 m. There are many moun- tains and plateaus in this region.  Peninsular Plateau 1. Mewar Plateau 2. Central India Plateau 3. Bundelkhand 4. Malwa 5. Baghel Division 6. Dandakaranya 7. Chota Nagpur 8. Meghalaya 9. Karsi Manglong 10. Deccan Plateau  Madhwarti High Region = Mewar + Madhya Bharat + Bundelkhand + Malwa Page No. Geography Notes 1. Mewar Plateau: This plateau is situated to the east of the Aravalli Mountains in Rajasthan. The Banas River flows on this plateau. The slope of this plateau is from west to east. 2. Central India Plateau: It is a plateau located in Madhya Pradesh. The slope of this plateau is from southwest to north-east. On this plateau, the Chambal River flows which forms the Ravines here by gully Erosion. 3. Bundelkhand Plateau: This plateau is located in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Semi-arid conditions are found on this plateau. The slope of this plateau is from south to north. The Kane and Betwa rivers flow over this plateau. These rivers also form deep valleys and waterfalls here. 4. Malwa Plateau This plateau is mainly located in Madhya Pradesh. It is a triangular plateau with a height of 300 to 600 m. Its highest peak is the Sigar top. A layer of lava is found on this plateau. The black soil is formed by weathering. The Chambal, Kalisindh, Parvati, Betwa and Shipra riv- ers flow over this plateau. Ujjain and Bhopal city are situated on the banks of Shipra river where Kumbh fair is also held. The city of Indore is also located on this plateau. 5. Baghelkhand Plateau: This plateau is located in M.P and Chhattisgarh. It is in east of the Kaimur Hills. This plateau separates the drainage system of Son and Mahanadi. 6. Dandakaranya Plateau: This plateau is mainly located in Chhattisgarh and Orissa. In Chhattisgarh, this plateau is called 'Bastar Plateau' and in Odisha it is called Kalahandi Plateau. The Indravati and Sabri- Sileru rivers flow on this plateau. Iron ore and bauxite deposits are found on this plateau. The famous iron ore mine 'Dalli Rajhara' is located in Chhattisgarh. The major reserves of bauxite in Odisha are found in three major districts - (i) Kalahandi (ii) Koraput (iii) Bolangir Page No. Geography Notes 7. Chota Nagpur Plateau: This plateau is mainly located in Jharkhand and adjoining states. The average elevation of this plateau is 700 m. The highest peak is Parasnath. Iron ore and coal deposits are found on this plateau. Damodar, North Koyal, Barakar, Bokaro, Swarnarekha, Shankh Rivers flow on this plateau. Damodar river divides this plateau into 2 parts. (i) Northern part - Hazari Bagh and Koderma Plateau (ii) Southern part - Ranchi plateau Coal deposits are found in Damodar river valley region. The Subernrekha River originates from the Ranchi Plateau. In the western part there is a lava formed pat area with the highest pat Netarhat. 8. Meghalaya Plateau: This plateau is considered to be a part of the Chota Nagpur Plateau. It is separated from the Chota Nagpur Plateau by the Malda fault or Rajmahal Garo Gap. Iron ore, uranium and coal deposits are found on this plateau. Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, hills are situated on this plateau. Places known as Cherrapunji and Mawsynram are found on the Khasi Hills, where much rainfall is received. Mawsynram receives the world's highest average annual rainfall. The highest peak of the Garo hills is Nokrek, it is a bio-reserved area. Shillong Peak is the highest peak of the Khasi Hills and the Meghalaya Plateau. 9. Karbianglong Plateau: This plateau is located in Assam. The Mikir and Rengma Hills are located on this plateau. 10. Deccan Plateau: It is a triangular plateau in peninsular India. A layer of lava is found on this plateau. Due to which black soil is produced here. It is the most prominent cotton growing region of India due to black soil. The slope of this plateau is from west to east. Page No. Geography Notes This plateau can be divided into 3 major parts- (i) Maharashtra Plateau (ii) Andhra Plateau (iii) Karnataka Plateau (i) Maharashtra Plateau:  It is the most prominent cotton growing region of India.  Godavari and Krishna River flows on the plateau. (ii) Andhra Plateau:  The Krishna River divides this plateau:  Region situated in North of Krishna River - Telangana  Southern Part -Rayalseema  The eastern part is called Seemandhra.  Peneru is the other major river flowing on this plateau. (iii) Karnataka Plateau:  600 m The contour line divides this plateau into 2 parts-  Northern part - Bangalore plateau  Southern Region - Mysore Plateau The Krishna and Tuganbhadra rivers flow on the Bangalore plateau and the Kaveri river flows on the Mysore plateau of peninsular region Peninsular Mountains The hills of the Kathiawar peninsula - Gir, Girnar and Mandav hills are the main hills here. Gorakhnath is the highest peak here. Gir National Park is located here. 1. Aravalli: This mountain stretches from Palanpur in Gujarat to Raisina Hills of Delhi. It is the old fold mountain. This is an example of a Relict mountain. It extends over a distance of 692 km and its maximum part is in Rajasthan (550 km). The average elevation of this mountain is 930 m. Gurushakhar is its highest peak (1722 m). Many minerals are found in this mountainous region. Such as lead, zinc, silver, iron ore and copper. It is a part of the great water divider. Page No. Geography Notes 2. Vindhyachal: It is a block mountain. The mountain is made of limestone. This range separates northern and southern India. This range forms the northern boundary of the Narmada rift valley. It extends from Gujarat to the Chota Nagpur Plateau area at a distance of about 1050 kilome- ters. This range includes various hills - such as Bharner, Kaimur, Parasnath. The famous area for diamonds in this category is 'Panna' (MP). 3. Satpura: It is a Khand mountain. It determines the southern boundary of the Narmada rift valley and the northern boundary of Tapi rift valley. It is made of sand stone. It is mainly located in Kutch and Gujarat. It is extended in the form of various hills like Rajpipla, Gawilgarh, Mahadev, Maikal. Dhupgarh (1350 m) is the highest peak of Satpura in the Mahadev Hills. Panchmarhi is situated in the Mahadev Hills. Panchmarhi is a biosphere reserved area. To the south of the Mahadev hills lies the Betul plateau, the Tapi River originates from here. Amarkantak is the highest peak of the Maikal hills, the Son and Narmada rivers originates from here 4 Western Ghats: It extends from the Tapi River to Kanyakumari. It is spread over a distance of about 1600 kms and its average height is 1200 m. is. It is also called Sahyadri mountain. It is a fault scarp or block mountain. The western slope of the Western Ghats is sharp and the eastern slope is gentle. This mountain receives heavy rainfall through the south-west monsoon winds. Hence, tropical evergreen vegetation is found here. There is a lot of biodiversity in this mountain- ous region and it is one of the 36 hotspots in the world. The Western Ghats can be divided into 3 major parts. i Northern Sahyadri ii. Central Madhya Sahyadi iii. Southern Sahyadri Page No. Geography Notes i. Northern Sahyadri: This part is situated between 16° N from Tapi valley. It is mainly located in Maharashtra. The highest peak of this part is Kalasubai, from which the river 'Godavari' originates. The other major peak here is 'Mahabaleshwar'. The 'Krishna River' originates from the Mahabaleshwar peak. The other major peak here is 'Mahabaleshwar'. ii. Middle Sahyadri: It is situated between the Nilgiri Hills from the 16° N. It is mainly located in Goa and Karnataka. The highest peak of this part is Kudremukh. Kudremukh peak is noted for its iron ore deposits. Baba Budan hills are also found here which are famous for the production of coffee. iii. Southern Sahyadri: Southern Sahyadri lies between the Nilgiri Hills and Kanyakumari. There are 3 major hills in this part- Annamalai Hills  The highest peak of these hills. Anamudi (Kerala); 2695 is the height  Anaimudi is the highest peak in South India. Cardamom hills  These hills are famous for spice cultivation. ; Mainly for cardamom  The highest peak of these hills is Agasthamalai. It is also a biosphere-reserve. Palani Hills  Kodaikanal is the famous hill station of Tamil Nadu located in these hills. Passes in Western Ghats 1. Thalghat - Mumabi to Nasik by NH3 2. Bhorghat - Mumbai to Pune by NH4 3. Palghat - Kochi to Coimbatore by NH47 4. Senkota - Tiruvanthpuram to Madurai by NH49 5. Eastern Ghats: This mountain is spread between the Mahanadi to the Nilgiri Hills. It is an old fold moun- tain. Its average elevation is 900 meters. This mountain is continuous from the Mahanadi to the Godavari river and after that the mountain is eroded by rivers. Its highest peak is Aramaconda (AP)( height -1680 m). The other major peaks here are Mahendragiri (Vakpeindh and Jindagadha). Eastern Ghats also include hills located in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Such as - Nallamalla, Eramalla, Velikonda, Palakonda - Jawadi, Shevaroy.. Seshachalam hills are also a part of the Eastern Ghats which is a biosphere-reserve. Page No. Geography Notes 6. Nilgiri Hills: These hills are situated on the border areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It is a block mountain. The highest peak of this mountain is Dodabetta; 2637 height. It is the second highest peak in South India. Eastern and Western Ghats meet at these hills. These hills are noted for biodiversity. India's first Biosphere reserve area is located here. The famous hill station Ooty in Tamil Nadu is located here. These hills are famous for tea plantation agricul- ture. These hills are inhabited by the Doda tribe, which is noted for buffalo cultivation. Difference between Western and Eastern Ghats Western Ghats Eastern Ghats 1 It is situated between Kanyakumari 1 It is situated between the Mahanadi and Tapi rift valley. and the Nilgiri Hills. 2 It is a block mountain; 2 It is an old fold mountain. 3 It is a high mountain range with an 3 The average height of this mountain average height of 1200 m. is. Its highest is 900 m. And Aramaconda is its peak is Anaimudi. highest peak. 4 4 It is a continuous mountain range and This mountain is only continuous many passes are found in it. between Mahanadi to Godavari river. 5 Due to the high altitude and the 5 Due to low elevation and east direction of the monsoon winds, heavy direction, limited rainfall is received rainfall is received here. here. 6 Due to the excess rainfall, the tropical 6 Due to limited rainfall, the tropical evergreen vegetation is found here. deciduous vegetation is found here. 7 Much biodiversity is found here and it 7 Limited biodiversity is found here. is included in the 36 hotspots of the world. 8 Many rivers originate from here - 8 Rivers originating from the Western Krishna, Godavari etc. Ghats fall into the Bay of Bengal, eroding the Eastern Ghats. Importance of peninsular plateau region: 1. It is part of the Gondwana land. Hence, it is a stable landmass. 2. 98% of Gondwana coal is found here. 3. Many minerals are found here - iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, silver, uranium, bauxite. 4. Building stones are also found here such as - limestone, sandstone, marble etc. 5. Black soil is formed here due to lava layer, which is useful for cotton cultivation. 6. The mountain ranges located here serve as great watersheds. 7. Various rivers originate from the mountains located here. 8. Many hill stations are situated here. 9. Very high biodiversity is found in the mountainous region located here. Plantation agri- culture is practised here. 10. Rivers falling from this plateau-mountainous region form waterfalls which are used for hydroelectric power generation. Page No. Geography Notes Drainage system  The flow of water in a fixed path is called drainage. The network of river and its tributaries is called drainage system. The specific area from which the river receives rain and glacial water is called the catchment area of the river. The area drained by the river and its tribu- taries is called the drainage basin. The basin is actually synonymous with the catchment area.  Any elevated region which separates two drainage basins is called water divide. Great Water Divide: The great water divide of India starts from Mansarovar lake in Tibet and extends through Kamet mountain peak and Ambala to Kanyakumari in the form of mountain ranges like Aravalli Vindhyachal, Satpura, Western Ghats. The Great Water Divide separates India into three major drainage system - the Arabian Sea drainage system, the Bay of Bengal Bay drainage system and the Inland drainage system. Page No. Geography Notes Drainage System of India The drainage system of India can be classified on various grounds. Based on Ocean Orientation Originally and Geographically  Bay of Bengal drainage system (77%  Himalaya Drainage System of the total drainage system)  Arabian Sea Drainage System (18%  of the total drainage system) Peninsular Drainage System  Inland drainage system (5% of the  total drainage system) Inland drainage system Difference between Himalaya and Peninsular drainage system Himalaya Drainage System Peninsular drainage system 1 This system consists of rivers 1 This system consists of rivers originating originating from the Himalayas and from the peninsular plateau region and their their tributaries. tributaries. 2 The rivers of this drainage system 2 The rivers of this drainage system receive receive water from glaciers as well as water only from rain, so these rivers are rainfall, hence these rivers are seasonal. perennial. 3 This system has long rivers. 3 The rivers of this system are comparatively shorter. 4 These rivers are in their young stage 4 These rivers are in their mature stage as they as they flow from the young fold flow from peninsular plateau region. mountain region. 5 The erosion capacity of these rivers is 5 These rivers have high deposition capacity. high. 6 These rivers form 'V' shaped valleys, 6 These rivers form wide valleys. gorges, canyons and waterfalls. 7 The amount of sediments in these 7 The amount of sediments is low in these rivers is high, due to which it forms rivers due to which they form limited plains. large plains. 8 The basin of these rivers is large but a 8 The basin of these rivers is small but a large small number of rivers fall into the number of rivers fall into the ocean. ocean. 9 The bed of these rivers is made up of 9 The bad of these rivers is made of hard alluvial sediments. rocks. 10 These rivers meander while flowing 10 These rivers do not meander in the plateau through the plains. region and they only meander in the delta region. 11 This system includes antecedent and 11 This drainage system includes consequent consequent rivers. and superimposed rivers. 12 These rivers are more suitable for 12 Due to limited amount of water, the Hydro navigation as they flow & through electricity generation capacity of these rivers huge plains. is low but their full capacity has been utilized. 13 They are more suitable for rivers due 13 These rivers are not much suitable for to flowing through wide plains. havigation as they flow through the plateau region and they are navigable only in the delta region. Page No. Geography Notes Himalaya Drainage System: The Himalayan drainage system consists of antecedent and consequent rivers, which are perennial and long. Being young, these rivers form deep valleys, gorges, canyons etc. While flowing over a wide plain, these rivers are suitable for sailing. The Himalayan drainage system consists of three major river systems. 1. Indus Drainage System 2. Ganges drainage system 3. Brahmaputra drainage system Indus Drainage System: This drainage system is formed by the Indus and its tributaries. In India, this drainage system is widespread in Ladakh, Jammu-Kashmir, Punjab and Himalayas. The total length of the Indus River is 2880 km.. (Note: In some places its length is also stated to be 3180 km.) In India, its length is 1114 km. The total catchment area of the Indus River is 11.65 lakh sq km. And its catchment area in India is 3.21 lakh sq km. The Indus River originates from the glacier located near Bokhar Chu in the Kailash moun- tainous region near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet. In Tibet, the Indus River is known as Singi Khanban. This river enters India from a place called Damchok. Leh, the capital of Ladakh, is situated on the banks of this river. Leh, the capital of Ladakh, is situated on the banks of this river. The Indus River flows between Ladakh and Zaskar Range into Pakistan near a place called Chilas. This river forms the Bunzi Gorge near Nanga Parbat, and enters the plains from a place called Attock in Pakistan. The major tributaries on the right hand side of the Indus River are Shyok, Hunza, Gilgit, Swat, Kabul, Gomal and the major tributaries of the left and right are the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, (Panchanad) and Jaskar, Dras. Panchanad joins the Indus River near a place called Mithankot in Pakistan, and the Indus River falls into the Arabian Sea, forming a delta near Karachi. Major tributaries of Indus: Page No. Geography Notes 1. Jhelum (ancient name Vivasta): - (Length- 725 km) The river originates from the Verinag Falls located in the exile area of the Pirpanjal moun- tain range in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. This river forms the Wular lake, which is the largest freshwater lake in India. Srinagar is situated on the banks of this river. The major Page No. Geography Notes tributary of the Jhelum River is Kishanganga (Neelam). The Jhelum River is navigable from Anantnag to Baramulla in Kashmir. This river joins the Chenab river in Jhang district of Punjab in Pakistan. The Jhelum River flows through the India-Pakistan border area. A navigation project called Tulbul is proposed on this river. 2. Chenab (ancient name- Askini) (Length - 1180 km) or (960 km): This river originates from the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga streams originating near the Barlachha Pass in Himachal Pradesh. The rivers Chandra and Bhaga meet at a place called Tandi in Lahaul district of Himachal Pradesh. The river passes through Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir and meets the Indus River at Mithankot in Pakistan, and the Jhelum, Ravi, Sutlej rivers meet the Chenab river in Pakistan. The Chenab River is the largest tributary of the Indus River. The Dulhasti, Salal and Baglihar projects are located on the Chenab river in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. 3. Ravi (Ancient names - Purushini and Iravati) (Length - 725 km) This river originates from Bara Bhangal village in Kangra district near Rohtang Pass in Page No. Geography Notes Himachal Pradesh. This river passes through the Chamba valley. The river flows through the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and flows through the Indo- Pakistan border and joins the Chenab river in Jhang district of Punjab (near Ahmedpur Sial town) in Pakistan. Lahore city of Pakistan is situated on the banks of the Ravi River. The Chamera Dam is situated on this river in Himachal Pradesh and the Thein or Ranjit Sagar Dam is located on this river in Punjab. The Shahpurkandi project is being developed on the Ravi river in Punjab. 4. Beas River (ancient name -Vipasha) (length-470 km): This river originates from Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh. This river passes through the Kullu valley. This river meets the Sutlej River at a place called Harike in Punjab. The Pong Dam is situated on this river in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, which forms the Maharana Pratap Sagar reservoir. 5. Sutlej River (ancient name-Shatudri) (Length -1450 km): - Page No. Geography Notes This river originates from the Rakshash Tal in Tibet. In Tibet it is called Longchen kambha. This river enters India through the Shipkila Pass. Its major tributories are in the Himachal Pradesh and the Nathpa Jakhadi dam is situated. The Bhakra (Himachal Pradesh) -Nangal (Punjab) dam is situated on this river in the border area of Punjab and Himachaya Pradesh. Govind Sagar reservoir is constructed on Bhakra dam in Himachal Pradesh. The river Beas meets the Sutlej River at a place called Harike in Punjab, and the Indira Gandhi Canal origi- nates from here. The cities of Ludhiana and Ferozepur in Punjab are situated on the banks of this river. The Sutlej River flows in the Indo-Pakistan border area, and the Sutlej River meets the Chenab River near the ucchay sharif town of Bahawalpur district in the Punjab state of Pakistan. The Sutlej River is the longest river of the Panchanad and its length in India is 1050 km. Ganges drainage system  This drainage system is formed by the Ganges and its tributaries. It is the largest drainage system in India, covering about 25% of India's area.  The river Ganga originates from the confluence of the rivers Alaknanda and Bhagirathi at a place called Devprayag in Uttarakhand. The Tehri Dam is located at the confluence of Bhagirathi and its tributary Bhilangana, which is the highest dam in India.  The river Ganges enters the plains from Haridwar. The Ganges flows into the northern part of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal states and falls in the Bay of Bengal after joining the Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh. The Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers form the Sundarbans delta.  Rishikesh, Haridwar, Kanpur, Prayagraj, Varanasi and Patna in Bihar are located on the banks of the Ganges.  The total catchment area of the Ganges river is 10.631 lakh sq km. , And its catchment area in India is 8.61 lakh sq km. is. The length of the Ganges is 2525 km.  A distributary named Hooghly originates from the Ganges at a place called Farakka in West Bengal. The major rivers on the right side of the river Ganga are Yamuna, Son and Punpun and the major left tributaries are Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi and Mahananda. Ambala separates the Indus and the Ganges drainage system as a watershed. Page No. Geography Notes Tributaries to the right 1. Yamuna (length 1376 km): - It is the longest tributary of the Ganges. This river originates from the Yamunotri glacier located in the Bandar Punch peak area in Uttarakhand. This river flows from Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Delhi and joins the Ganges River in Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh. The major tributaries on the right hand side of the Yamuna River are Tons, Giri, Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, and Cane and the tributaries on the left are Hindon and Sanger. The cities Agra and Mathura are situated on the banks of this river. The Kisau Project on Tons River, Renukaji Project on Giri River and Lakhwar Project on Yamuna River are being developed. Yamuna river project is being developed. Yamuna river is highly polluted and is biologically dead. 2. Sone (length 784 Km.): - This river originates from the Amarkantak plateau in the Madhya Pradesh and it meets the Ganges river near Sonpur near Patna in Bihar. Placer deposits of gold are found in the basin of this river. Its major tributaries are Rihand and north Koyal. The Rihand Dam is located on which the Govind Vallabh Panth Sagar reservoir is constructed. Left Tributaries: 1. Ramganga (length 596 km): This river originates from the Dudhatoli hills in the Garhwal Page No. Geography Notes district of Uttarakhand. Gairsain (in Chamoli district), the summer capital of Uttarakhand state, is located near the origin point of this river. This river enters the plains near Najibabad in Uttar Pradesh and joins the river Ganga near Kannauj, it is the main river of Rohilkhand plain. The Ramganga river passes through Jim Corbett National Park located in Nanital district. 2. Gomti (length - 475 km): This river originates from Gomat Tal in Pilibhit district of Uttar Pradesh. Lucknow and Jaunpur city are situated on the banks of this river. It is the main river in the plain of Awadh and joins the Ganges river in the Uttar Pradesh itself. (Note - The longest river in Tripura is named Gumti.) 3. Ghaghara (length -1080 km): This river originates from the Mapachachongo glacier on the plateau of Tibet. This river forms a deep garage near Chisapani place in Nepal. In Nepal it is known as Karnali, and in India it is called Ghaghra. The Ghaghra River flows through the Uttar Pradesh and meets the Ganges River at a place called Chhapra in Bihar. Tila, Seti, Beri, Sharda (Kali), Saryu, Rapti are its major tributaries. The Sharda River originates from the Milam glacier in Nepal. The Sharda River in Nepal is known as Goriganga, in the Indo-Nepal border region it is known as the Kali or Chak River, and in India it is known as Sharda. Ayodhya is situated on the banks of Saryu river and Gorakhpur is on the banks of Rapti river. In fact, the river Ghaghra in Ayodhya is called Saryu. 4. Gandak (length 814 km): This river originates from the confluence of Kaligandak and Trishul Ganga streams in Nepal. It originates between Dholagiri and Mount Everest in the Nepal Himalayas and drains central Nepal. It enters the Gangetic plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Ganges river at Sonpur near Patna. 5. Kosi (Length - 729 km): This river originates in Nepal by the confluence of different streams originating from the plateau of Tibet. Its major streams are Arun Kosi, Sun Kosi and Kosi. In Nepal, this river is known as Saptakosi. In India, it is called Kosi and flows in the state of Bihar. This river brings large amount of sediments in the Ganga river and this river often changes its course causing flooding (hence it is called the sorrow of Bihar). 6. Mahananda (length -360 km): This river originates from the Darjeeling hills in West Bengal and through the Bihar-Bengal border region, the river joins the Ganga river after entering Bangladesh. It is the last left tributary of the Ganga. Ganga Distributary :  Hooghly: At a place called Farakka in West Bengal, the river Ganges divides into two streams - Bhagirathi and Hooghly. Bhagirathi enters Bangladesh, and the Hooghly River flows from north to south in West Bengal and falls in the Bay of Bengal. Kolkata and Haldia port are situated on the Hooghly River. The major tributaries of the Hooghly are Mayurakshi and Damodar. Page No. Geography Notes Due to the deposition of sediments in the river Hooghly, the water level of this river rises frequently causing the problem of flooding. Hence, Hooghly is called trecherous river. Farakka Barrage is located on the Ganges River in West Bengal, from where the water of the Ganges River is diverted towards the Hooghly River which helps in removing the sediments from the bottom of the Hooghly.  Damodar: This river originates from the Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand, and it joins the Hooghly River in West Bengal. This river flows in the rift valley, due to which it is called Rurh Valley of India. Damodar River earlier used to cause flooding in Bengal, due to which it was called the sorrow of Bengal, but after independence, India's first multipurpose river valley project was developed on this river which helped in flood control. The Damodar River Valley Project is based on the Tennessee Valley Project of the United States.  Konar, Maithon and Panchet are some of the dams developed under Damodar river valley project. Barakar and Konar (Bokaro) are the major tributaries of Damodar. Bokaro (Jharkhand) Durgapur (Bengal) and Asansol (Bengal) are the major cities along the banks of Damodar River. Damodar is a highly polluted river and is biologically dead. Brahmaputra Drainage System:  This drainage system is formed by Brahmaputra and its tributaries. This drainage system is mainly located in the north-eastern states of India. The total catchment area of the Brahmaputra River is 5.8 lakh sq km. And its catchment area in India is 1.94 lakh sq km. The length of the Brahmaputra River is 2900 km.  This river originates by receiving water from the Angsi, Chemayungdung and Yarlung gla- ciers on the Tibetan plateau. This river enters the Arunachal Pradesh, forming a deep gorge (Dihang Gorge) near the Namcha Barwa peak. This river is called Tsangpo in Tibet, Dihang in Arunachal Pradesh, Brahmaputra from Assam, Jamuna in Bangladesh, Padma after meet- ing Ganga and Meghna after meeting Meghna River.  The Brahmaputra River forms braided channel in which some large riverine islands are also found. These include Majuli, the world's largest river island. The Brahmaputra River brings largest amount of water in India and this river also has high hydroelectric generating capac- ity. Page No. Geography Notes  The major right side tributaries of Brahmaputra are Teesta, Manas, Bharali, Sankosh, Kameng, Subanasiri and the tributaries on the left are Dibang, Lohit, Disang, Dhansiri Kapili (Keel- ing).  The Brahmaputra river floods Assam. Peninsular Drainage System  The rivers of this system are seasonal. The rivers of this system are in old age and flow through well-defined valleys in a small and fixed course. The drainage basin of these rivers is small. The rivers of this drainage are in their mature stage as they have almost reached its base level. The rivers of the peninsular drainage system can be divided into two classes. 1. Bay of Bengal drainage system 2. Arabian Sea Drainage System 1. Subernarekha (length-395 km): This river originates from Ranchi plateau in Jharkhand and it falls into the Bay of Bengal, forming a riverside through the border area of Odisha and West Bengal. While falling from the Ranchi plateau, this river forms the Hundru water fall in Jharkhand. The city of Jamshedpur is situated on the banks of this river. Gold placer deposits are found in the basin of this river. 2. Vaitarani - Brahmani: Vaitarani originates from the Keonjhar district of Odisha and the Brahmani river originates in the town of Rourkela in Odisha due to the confluence of the Shankh and the south Koyal rivers. Vaitarni river is also called Dhamra river. The Vaitarani and the Brahmani together form the delta and in its delta region lies the Bhittarkanika mangroves. The river Vaitarani is considered as the river of hell according to Garuda Purana. 3. Mahanadi (length 858 km): This river originates from Sihawa hills in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh, and falls in the Bay of Bengal forming a delta in Odisha. In the delta region of this river, Cuttack Puri of Odisha, and the city of Bhubaneswar and National Waterway 5 are located. This river forms a bowl- shaped basin in Chhattisgarh. Therefore, Chhattisgarh is also called the rice bowl of India. The Hirakund Dam is located on this river in Odisha, which is the longest dam in India. The major tributaries on its right are Tel, Ong and the tributaries on the left are Ib, Mand, Hasadeo, Sheonath. 4. Godavari (length 1465 km): It is the second longest river in India and forms the second largest drainage system in India. It is also called Dakshin Ganga or Vridh Ganga. The river originates from the Triambak plateau in the Kalasubai peak area of the Western Ghats in Nashik district of Maharashtra and the river falls into the Bay of Bengal after forming a delta via Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Yanam (Puducherry). In Dawalevaram, this river is divided into two branches, Gautami (northern branch) and Vashishta (southern branch).  Polavaram dam is located on this river in Andhra Pradesh. The tributaries on the left side of Godavari are Purna, Pranahita (Penganga, Wardha, Venganga), Indravati and Sabari (tribu- tary- Sileru also known as Machkund River. Balimela Project is located in Odisha on Sileru River. The Duduma waterfall is located in the Odisha - Andhra Pradesh border area. The Chitrakot waterfall is situated in Chhattisgarh on the Indravati River. The main tributaries on the right side of Godvari are Pravara and Manjara. Nizamsagar Dam is located in Telangana on the Manjara River. 5. Krishna (length 1400 km): This river originates from the Mahabaleshwar peak of the Western Ghats in the state of Maharashtra and the river flows through Karnataka, Telangana into the Bay of Bengal form- ing a delta in Andhra Pradesh. The Almatti Dam is located on the Krishna River in Karnataka and Nagarjuna Sagar Dam in Telangana. The tributaries on the left side of Krishna River are Bhima and Musi. And the tributaries on the right are Koyna, Ghatprabha, Malprabha, Page No. Geography Notes Tungabhadra. Hyderabad city and Nizam Sagar lake are situated on the banks of river Musi. The Shivaji Sagar Dam is located on the Koyna River in Maharashtra and the Tungabhadra Dam in Karnataka on the Tungabhadra River. 6. Penneru or Pennar River: This river originates from the Nandidurg hill in Kolar district of Karnataka. The river passes through the Chittoor, Nellore districts of Andhra Pradesh and falls into the Bay of Bengal after forming a delta. The river flows through the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh. Papagani and Chitravati are its major tributaries. 7. Kaveri (Length -805 km): This river originates from the Brahmagiri Hills of the Western Ghats in Karnataka and it falls in the Bay of Bengal forming a delta in Tamil Nadu. This river is also called Ganga of South India. The major tributaries of the left side of this river are Hemavati Shimsha, Arkavati and the main tributaries to the right are Lakshmanathirtha, Kabbani, Bhavani, Noel, Amravati. This river is divided into two streams three times and merges again. The islands are formed between two streams viz. Srirangapatnam Island (Karnataka), Sivasamudram Island (Karnataka) and Srirangam Island (Tamil Nadu). The Sivasamudram waterFall in Karnataka and the Hogenakal waterFall in Tamil Nadu are located on this river. The Krishnarajasagar dam in Karnataka and the Mettur dam in Tamil Nadu are located on this river. The Stanley Dam is formed by the Mettur dam. The Kaveri River receives rainfall from the southwest and north-east monsoon winds. Hence it is a perennial river. The Kaveri River is divided into two streams east of Tiruchiravalli - Kolleroon (Northern Stream) and Kaveri (Southern Stream). The delta of this river is famous for rice cultivation, Karaikal district of Puducherry is located in the delta region of Kaveri. Vegai River: This river originates from the Vashnad hill in Tamil Nadu and falls in the Gulf of Palk. The city of Madurai is situated on the banks of this river. Tamraparni River: It originates from Agasthyamalai hills in Tamil Nadu and falls in the Gulf of Mannar. Arabian Sea Drainage System 1. Luni (Length-495 km): This river originates from the Nag hills in Ajmer and it reaches the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. It is the most prominent river in western Rajasthan. The water of this river from the point of origin to Balotra in Barmer is fresh and after that the water of this river becomes salty. The major tributaries on its left are Sukdi, Bandi, Khari, Jawai, Sagi, Mithdi, Leelari, Guhiya, and its only tributary on the right is the Jojari. 2. Sabarmati: This river originates from the Aravalli mountain in Udaipur and it falls in the Gulf of Khambhat. This river cuts the Tropic of Cancer once. The city of Gandhisagar and Ahmedabad is situated on the banks of this river. Its major tributaries are Vaitarak, Sei, Hathmati, Meswa, Mansi, and Vakal. 3. Mahi: This river originates from Vindhyachal mountain in Madhya Pradesh and after flowing from Rajasthan and Gujarat, this river falls in the gulf of Khambhat This river cuts the Tropic of Cancer twice. Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam is located on this river in Banswara district of Rajasthan. Som, Jakham, Airav, Annas, Chapa and Moren are its major tributaries. 4. Narmada (length -1312 km): This river originates from the Amarkantak plateau in the Madhya Pradesh and falls in the gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat. This river flows between Vindhyachal and Satpura ranges and the main tributaries on the left are Tawa, Chota Tawa and Kundi. On this river, Dhunadhar and Kapil Dhara waterfall are located near Jabalpur. The Dhuadhar waterFall is also called marble waterfall Page No. Geography Notes The Indira Sagar Project is located on this river in Madhya Pradesh, which creates the Indira Sagar reservoir. Omkareshwar and Maheshwar Projects are also situated on the Narmada River in Madhya Pradesh. Sardar Sarovar Project is located on this river in Gujarat which is a joint project of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Bharuch city of Gujarat is situated on the banks of this river. A statue of unity has been built on Sadhu Bet Island in the Narmada River. 5. Tapi River (Length-724 km): This river originates from a place called Multai in Betul district in the Madhya Pradesh and forms border of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Girna and Bori are its major tributaries. This river flows through the rift Valley situated between the Satpura and Ajanta hills. The Ukai and Kakrapar projects are located on this river in Gujarat. The city of Surat is situated on the banks of this river. 6. Mandovi (Mahadayi): This river originates from the Western Ghats in Karnataka and it falls in the Arabian Sea, it form estuary in Goa. It is called the lifeline of Goa. This river passes through the Bhimgarh Wildlife Sanctuary. The Dudh Sagar waterfall is located on this river in Goa and Panaji, the capital of Goa, is also situated on the banks of this river. Chorao island is situated on this river on which Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary is located. 7. Juvari: This river originates from the Western Ghats and falls in the Arabian Sea, forming an estu- ary. It is a tidal river. The Cumbarjeum canal connects Mandori and Juari rivers. Marmagao port is located at the mouth of this river. 8. Sharavati: A waterfall called Jag waterFall is situated on this river in Karnataka. 9. Periyar: This river originates from the Annamalai hill of the Western Ghats. And it falls in the Arabian Sea north of Vembanad Lake. It is the longest and major river of Kerala and is called the lifeline of Kerala. The Idukki Project in Kerala is located on this river. 10. Ponnani (Bharatapuja): This river originates from the Annamalai hill of the Western Ghats and falls in the Arabian Sea. It is the largest river in Kerala and it is called the Nile River of Kerala. Inland Drainage System Ghaggar River: This river forms the largest inland drainage system in India. This river originates from Shimla Kalka Hills in Himachal Pradesh and flows through Haryana and Rajasthan to a place called Anupgarh in Sriganganagar district. When the amount of rainfall is high, the river travels to a place called Fort Abbas in Pakistan. This river basin is used for rice cultivation. Page No. Geography Notes Island Group Region  It includes the islands of Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea. 1. Andaman & Nicobar 2. Lakshdweep 1. Andaman & Nicobar Island group:  572 Volcanic islands are included in it.  Formation by convergence of Indo-Australian and Burma plate.  This Island group is considered as part of Arakan Yoma Mountain.  As there islands near equatorial region, evergreen negotiation & biodiversity is found here.  Many tribes are found here such as:- Ex. Jarwa Ong Andamani Nicobari Sentinelese Page No. Geography Notes 2. Lakshadweep Island Groups Page No. Geography Notes Note - Coral Reefs  Marine organism named Coral polyp lives in symbiotic relationship with algae Zooxan- thellae. This organism provides a home to Zooxanthellae algae and the algae provides nutrition to it. The rock made up of the skeletons of this organism, which is found up to 200 m of depth, is called coral reef.  It the coral reef is visible above the ocean, then they are called 'coral islands'.  Lakshdweep is a group of 36 Islands.  There are coral islands.  Three Major island groups are found. (i) Amindivi (ii) Cannanore (iii) Minicoy Importance of Islands 1. Their climate remains equable due to maritime effect. 2. There are the centres of tourist attraction because of their scenic beauty. 3. They have specific biotic characteristics because of their separation from the main land. 4. They have a special contribution in providing fuel and safe harbour to the commercial ships in emergency. 5. They carry a specific strategic importance because of their location in the Indian ocean. In the light of some near and distant foreign powers intending to increase their undue influence in the Indian ocean, their naval importance has further increased. Page No. Geography Notes  Soil is a mixture of organic and inorganic elements.  Soil is formed by the weathering of rocks. The major constituents of soil are minerals, water, air and organic matter.  The process of formation of soil is very long under which physical, chemical and biological changes take place in the soil. Soil is a non renewable resource, however some elements of soil like humus are renewable. The process of formation of soil is called pedogenesis and the study of soil is called pedology. Russian geologist V.V. Dakuchev is considered as the father of science of soil.  Factors which influence the formation of soil are- Active factors: 1. Climate 2. Organic Matter Inactive factors 3. Parent Material 4. Time 5. Relief 6. Location 7. Human activities Page No. Geography Notes 1. Parent Material:- The minerals which are found in soil forming rocks are also found in the soil. Eg Red and Yellow soils formed by igneous and metamorphic rocks have high iron content. 2. Location:- On the basis of location two types of aoils are found- Zonal and Azonal soils.  Zonal Soils:- Features of parent material are found in these soils. Due to less erosion these soils are coarse grained. Eg. Red, Yellow soil.  Azonal Soils:- Very less features of parent material are found in these soils. Due to excessive weathering, these soils are fine grained. Hence water retention properties of these soils is more. There is no formation of soil profile in these soils and are immature soils. Eg. Alluvial soils. 3. Relief- These influence accumulation of soil. On mountain slopes, there is thin layer of soil due to more erosion whereas in plains due to deposition of soil, thick layer is found. Thick- ness of soil affects its color, profile and fertility. 4. Organic Matter- These are of both types- living and dead. Living organic matter includes bacteria. Dead organic matter includes remains of plants and animals. Bacteria decompose the organic matter to form humus. Soil with more amount of humus is fertile and of dark color. 5. Climate- This is the major factor affecting formation of soil. The two major elements of climate are temperature and rainfall.  Temperature- in high temperature regions, bacteria becomes active and form humus by decomposing organic matter. In low temperature regions, bacteria become less active and cannot decompose organic matter leading to formation of humic acid in soil. In high temperature and high rainfall region, bacteria become highly active due to which humus is formed but later gets destroyed.  Rainfall- In high rainfall regions, water soluble elements ( lime and silica) perculates in the soil reducing its fertility. Eg- Laterite soil. In low rainfall regions, arid soils are formed. Due to high evaporation rates, high salinity is found in soils of arid regions. 6. Time:- The soil which takes longer time to form is more mature. Adequate time is required for complete development of soil profile. 7. Human Activities:- Due to excessive use of fertilizers, an imbalance is created among the Page No. Geography Notes soil constituents. Due to excessive irrigation, salinity of soil increases. Other human activi- ties like deforestation and overgrazing increase soil erosion. Page No. Geography Notes Types of Soil- On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, India's soil has been classified into 8 types. 1. Alluvial Soil- This soil is formed by the sediments brought by the rivers. Therefore it is Page No. Geography Notes also called deposition soil. This is an azonal soil and formation of soil profile doesn't take place in it. It is also called loamy soil. Due to presence of fine particles, this soil has high water retention capacity. This soil has limited amount of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and humus and has sufficient amount of Potash. This soil is fertile and is very important for agriculture. The colour of this soil is grey and has two subtypes - khadar and bangar. This soil is mainly found in Northern Plain region and coastal plain regions. This is the largest soil group of India and which is spread over more than 40% of the area of India. 2. Black Soil- This soil is formed by the weathering of basaltic lava. This soil is also called as Cotton soil, Regur soil or Tropical Chernozem. This is a clayey soil and it's particles are very small. This soil takes time to absorb and release water. Hence the water retention capacity of this soil is maximum. On absorption of water, this soil swells and becomes sticky, on getting dried up this soil shrinks due to which cracks are formed. Therefore it is called self- ploughing soil. Due to presence of titaniferrous magnetite, the colour of this soil is black. This soil has limited amount of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Humus and sufficient amounts of Potash. In this soil, Magnesia, Aluminum, Lime and Iron Ore are also present. This soil is mainly found in the northwestern part of Peninsular India. This soil is spread over 5 lakh sq km of the area of India. 3. Red - Yellow Soil - This soil is formed by weathering of crystalline rocks and has higher iron content. The colour of this soil is red due to ferric oxide. However, in hydrated form, this soil becomes yellow in colour. This soil has limited amount of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and humus while it has sufficient amounts of Potash. In the upland areas, the soil particles are coarser and in lowland areas the soil particles are finer. The finer grained Red- Yellow soil is more fertile then the coarse grained soil. This soil is mainly found in eastern part of Peninsular Plateau and North- Eastern States. 4. Laterite Soil- This soil is formed in high temperature and high rainfall regions. Due yo heavy rainfall, water soluble particles like Silica and Lime percolates in the lower layers of soil, therefore on the upper layers, Iron oxides and Aluminum oxides are found in higher amounts. This process is called leaching. Due to leaching, laterite soil contains more amounts of iron and aluminium oxides and limited amounts of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potash and humus. Due to presence of more oxides, this soil on drying up becomes hard, due to which it is used for brick formation. The name of this soil is derived from the Latin word 'Later' which means 'brick'. This soil is not fertile and is only used in plantation agriculture. This soil is mainly found in western coastal regions, western slopes of Western Ghats and Meghalaya Plateau regi