Geography of India Revision Notes PDF

GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN CHAPTER-1-STRUCTURE OF INDIA 1. THE ARCHAEAN FORMATIONS (PRE-CAMBRIAN)  The Archaean Era is also known as the Precambrian Period.  the division of geologic time scale from the formation of the Earth (about 4.6 billion ye...

GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN CHAPTER-1-STRUCTURE OF INDIA 1. THE ARCHAEAN FORMATIONS (PRE-CAMBRIAN)  The Archaean Era is also known as the Precambrian Period.  the division of geologic time scale from the formation of the Earth (about 4.6 billion years ago) to the beginning of the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era (about 570 million years ago}.  The Precambrian time constitutes about 86.7% of the Earth's history.  The term 'Archaean', introduced by J.D. Dana in 1782, refers to the oldest rocks of the Earth's crust.  The oldest known rocks of the Earth, the evolutionary atmosphere, the first chemosynthesis, the first photosynthesis, the life-supporting atmosphere and the Earth's modem atmosphere, were developed during the Precambrian Era (Archaean and Protozoic).  Rocks of the Archaean System are devoid of any form of life.  the Archaean rocks are all azoic or un fossiliferous.  They are thoroughly crystalline, extremely contorted and faulted, and practically devoid of any sediment.  They are largely intruded by plutonic intrusions and generally have a well-defined foliated structure.  These rocks are known as the basement complex or fundamental gneisses.  cover two-thirds of Peninsular India.  In the Peninsular region, the Archaean rocks are known to be of three well-defined types: (i) The Bengal Gneiss  occurs in the Eastern Ghats, Orissa (known as Khodoliles after Khond tribes in Koraput and Bolangir districts), stretching over Manbhum and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand, Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh and Salem district of Tamil Nadu.  occur in the Son Valley, Meghalaya Plateau and Mikir HiUs.  thinly foliated.  For the first time these rocks were identified in the Midnapur district of West Bengal. (ii) The Bundelkhand Gneiss  forms the second group of fundamental gneiss of the Archaean age.  occurs in Bundelkhand (U.P.), Baghelkhand (M.P.), Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.  a coarse grained gneiss which looks like granite.  conspicuously criss-crossed and characterised by quartz veins. (iii) The Nllgiti Gneiss  The name being given in honour of job Charnock whose tombstone in Kolkata was made of this rock.  bluish-grey to dark coloured rock, medium to coarse grained in texture.  This is plutonic gneiss intruding into the other Archaean rock masses.  Nilgiri gneiss is popularly recognised as belonging to the Chamockite series.  widely found in South Arcot, Palni Hills, Shevaroy Hills and NiJgiri in Tamil Nadu, Nellore in Andhra Pradesh, Balasore in Orissa, Kamataka, Kerala, Malabar,Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Aravallis (Rajasthan).  The Archaean rocks are the repositories of the mineral wealth of lndia. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  These rocks are rich in ferrous and non-ferrous minerals like iron ore, copper, manganese, mica, dolomite, lead, zinc, silver and gold. 2. DHARWAR SYSTEM (PROTEROZOIC FORMATIONS)  This geologic time extends from 2500 million years ago to 1800 million years ago.  the first metamorphosed sedimentary rock systems known as the Dhatwar System in the Indian Geological Time Scale.  In India, these rocks were studied for the first time in the Dharwar district of Karnataka.  composed largely of igneous debris, schists and gneisses.  The Dharwar rocks occur in scattered patches in  (i} Dharwar and Bellary districts of Kamataka and extend up to the Nilgiris and Madurai districts of Tamil Nadu,  (ii) Central and eastern parts of the Chotanagpur Plateau, Meghalaya Plateau and Mikir Hills, and  (iii) the Aravallis, Rialo (Delhi series), from Delhi to the south of Alwar and the Himalayan region Nilgiris and Madurai districts of Tamil Nadu,  Dharwar rocks are highly metalliferous.  rich in iron ore, manganese, lead, zinc, gold, silver, dolomite, mica, copper, tungsten, nickel, precious stones and building materials.  Some of the important series of the Dharwar System are: (a) Champion Series  Belonging to the Dharwarian System, the series has been named after the Champion reef in the Kolar Gold fields.  Lying to the north-east of Mysore City and to the east of Bangalore, this series stretches in the Kolar and Raichur districts of Kamataka.  Its gold mines are one of the deepest in the world, being more than 3.5 km in depth.  The gold content in this series is about 5.5 grams per tonne of ore. (b) Champaner Series  an outlier of the Aravallis system in the vicinity of Vadodra.  consists of quartzites, conglomerates, phyllites, slates and marbles.  An attractive green variety of marble is obtained from this series. {c) Closepet Series  Stretching over the Balaghat and Chhindwara. districts of Madhya Pradesh,  it is a Dharwarian formation.  consists of quartzite, copper pyrite, and magniferous rocks.  The Malanjkhand Copper Plant gets its ore from the Closepet series. (d) Chilpi Series  occupies parts of Balaghat and Chhindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh.  consists of grit, phyllite, quartzites, green stones and magniferous rocks. (e) Iron-Ore Series  occurs in Singhbhum, Bonai, Mayurbhanj and Keonjhar in the form of a range.  is about 65 kilometres in length and reserves about three thousand million tons of iron-ore. (f) Khondolite Series  occupies a large area in the Eastern Ghats from the northern extremiry to the valley of Krishna.  The principal rock types in this series are khondolites, kodurites, charnockites and gneisses. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN (g) Rialo Series  known as the Delhi series, it extends from Delhi (Majnu-Ka-Tila) to Alwar, Rajasthan in a north-east to south-west direction.  rich in marbles.  The Makrana, and Bhagwanpur known for high quality of marble belong to this series. (h) Sakoli Series  Stretching over Jabalpur and Rewa districts, this series belongs to the Dharwarian formation.  rich in mica, dolomite, schist and marble.  The marble of this series is of superior quality. (i) Sausar series  spreads over Nagpur, Bhandara districts of Maharashtra, and Chindwara district of Madhya Pradesh.  It belongs to the Dharwarian group and is rich in quartzite, mica chist, marble and magniferous rocks. 3. THE CUDDAPAH SYSTEM (THE PURANA GROUP)  named after the district of Cuddapah in Andhra Pradesh,  sedimentary-metamorphic formations.  The Cuddapah System occurs in the (i) Cuddapah and Kumool districts of Andhra Pradesh, (ii) Chhattisgarh, (iii) Rajasthan-Delhi to the south of Alwar, and (iv) the Lesser Himalayas in the extra- Peninsular region.  The principle rocks of the Cuddapah System are sandstones, shales, limestone, quartzites slates, inferior quality of iron-ore, manganese ore, asbestos, copper, nickel, cobalt (Delhi System), marble, jasper, building material and stones for interior decoration.  The metallic contents in the ores of Cuddapah rocks are, however, low and at places uneconomical for extraction. Papaghani series  named after the Papaghani river (Andhra Pradesh), in the valley of which these rocks have been exposed.  consists of quartzites, sandstones, shales, slates, limestones and marbles.  The series is intruded by magma in the form of dykes and sills which have metamorphased limestone into marble, talc, slate, and serpentine. 4. THE VINDHYAN SYSTEM  derives its name from the Vindhyan Mountain.  This mountain forms a dividing line between the Ganga Plain and the Deccan Plateau.  The system covers an extensive area of 103,600 sq km from Chittorgarh in Rajasthan to Sasaram in Bihar.  has enormous sedimentary deposits and at places their depth is more than 4000 metres.  In some tracts, the Vindhyan rocks are buried under Deccan lava.  The Great Boundary Fault (GBF) separates the Vindhyan System from the Aravallis for a distance of about eight hundred km  well known for red-sandstone, sandstone, building material, ornamental stone, conglomerates, diamondiferous and raw materials for cement, lime, glass and chemical industries.  In certain places these rocks yield inferior, quality of iron ore and manganese.  The well known diamond mines of Panna and Golconda lie 1n the Vindhyan System. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  The historical buildings of Qutab Minar, Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Red Fort,Jama-Masjid, Birla Mandir, the Buddhist Stupa of Sanchi, etc. have been constructed from the red-sandstone obtained from the Vindhyan Ranges.  Coarser sandstones have been used as grindstones and millstones. Bhander Series  spreads over the western parts of the Vindhyan formation.  main rocks are sandstones, shales and limestone.  provides good quality of building material besides diamonds and precious stones. Bijwar Series  Stretching over the districts of Chhatarpur and Panna, this series belongs to the Vindhyan system.  composed of sandstone, red-sandstone, and quartzite. It has basaltic intrusions whose dykes are rich in diamonds. Kaimur Series  This series sprawls over Bundelkhand (U.P.) and Baghelkhand (M.P.).  The main rocks in this series are sandstone, conglomerate and shale.  rich in red sandstone used in historical monuments. 5. THE PALAEOZOIC GROUP(CAMBRIAN TO CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD)  The Palaeozoic Era includes the Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and the Permian periods of the Standard Geological Time Scale.  known as the Dravidian Era in the Indian Geological Time Scale.  The Palaeozoic Era extends from 570 million years ago to 24.5 million years ago. It marks the beginning of life on the Earth's surface.  The formations of this period are almost absent in the Peninsular India except near Umaria in Rewa.  These formations exist in the Pir-Panjal, Handwara, Lidder-Valley, AnantnagofKashmir Uammu & Kashmir), Spiti, Kangra, Shimla region (Himachal Pradesh), and Garhwal and Kumaun (Uttarakhand).  It was during this period that the Pangaea was broken and the Tethys Sea came into existence.  The Cambrian rocks include shales, sandstones, clays, quartzites slates, salts, marble, etc. Palaeozoic System in the Indian Geologic Time Scale  The Gondwana formations are fluviatile and lacustrine in character.  They were deposited in the river basins and lakes during the Upper Carboniferous Period.  These basins later subsided along the trough faults amidst ancient rocks of the great southern continent called the Gondwanaland.  These rocks were formed during the Upper Carboniferous and the Jurassic Periods (Mesozoic Era). 6. THE MESOZOIC ERA (THE GONDWANA. SYSTEM)  'Mesozoic' means middle life.  The term is used for a period of geologic time in which the presence of fossil invertebrates dominated the rocks.  includes three periods: Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous.  In the Indian Geological Time Scale, these periods extend from the Upper Carboniferous up to the beginning of the Cenozoic Era or the Aryan Era.  The Gondwana group begins with the Permo-Carboniferous period which, in the Standard Geologic Time Scale, is known as a period of coal formation. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  The Lower Gondwana rocks are found in the Talcher, Panchet and Damuda series.  Most of the good quality coal deposits (bituminous and anthracite) of India are found in Gondwana formations.  Moreover, iron ore occurs in the iron-stone shales of Raniganj coal fields.  In addition to coal and iron, kaolin, fireclay, sandstone and grits are also found in the Gondwana formations. Talcher Series  the series of the Gondwana system named after Talcber in Dhankenal District of Orissa.  rich in good quality coal used for smelting and in thermal power plants. The Damuda series  The Damuda series belongs to the Middle Gondwana Period which contains enormous deposits of coal seams.  The coal seams are thicker and more elongated in the eastern coal fields than in the west  The important coal bearing areas of this period are Raniganj,Jharia, Karanpura and Bokaro of the Damodar basin, Singrauli, Korba, and Pench valley in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, Talcher in Mahanadi Basin in Orissa, and Singreni of Satpura Basin in Madhya Pradesh.  The Jhingurda Coal Seam with a thickness of about 131 metres is the thickestcoal seam in India.  The Gondwana rocks are also found in Himalayas from Kashmir lo Arunachal Pradesh and Poorvanchal.  The coal seams of these areas are metamorphosed. They are also found in Saurashtra, Kachchh, western Rajasthan, Coromandal Coast, and Rajmahal Hills. Panchet Series  the youngest series of the Lower Gondwana System, which derives its name from the hill of that name south of Raniganj.  The series consists of greenish-sandstone and shales.  It is, however, devoid of coal-seams.  The iron-ore shales of the Lower Gondwana System are particularly well developed in the Raniganj coalfield of West Bengal.  they contain inferior quality iron ore, i.e. siderite and limonite.  Being inferior in quality, they are generally not mined for iron.  The Gondwana System of rocks provides over 95% of the coal of India.  Moreover, it provides iron-ore, limestone, sandstone and raw material for ceramic industry.  India's best and largest coal deposits are found in the Gondwana System-mainly in the Damodar Valley of West Bengal,Jharkhand, the Mahanadi valley of Orissa and Chhattisgarh, the Godavari valley of Andhra Pradesh and the Satpura basin of Madhya Pradesh The beginning of the Upper Carboniferous Period is known as the Aryan period. The salient features of the Aryan formations are:  During the Upper Carboniferous Period, the Himalayan region was occupied by a vast geosyncline which was connected lo the Pacific Ocean in the east through China and the Atlantic Ocean in the west through Afghanistan, Iran, Asia Minor and the present Mediterranean Sea. This was called the Tethys Sea.  The area of the Kashmir Himalayas (from Pir Panjallo Hazara in the north-west and Ladakh in the north-east) witnessed violent volcanic activity. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  The Upper continent of Gondwanaland developed fissures and its broken parts started drifting away from each other.  The Subcontinent of India drifted towards north and northeast to collide with the Asian land mass (Eurasian Plate).  There was large scale eruption of lava in the Deccan Trap.  The development and expansion of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.  The Tertiary mountain building gave birth to Himalayas.  The Subcontinent of India assumed its present shape.  The beginning of lce Age, belonging to the Pleistocene Period, covering large parts of the earth under ice-sheet.  Evolution and spread of man in different parts of the world. 7. THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM (THE DECCAN TRAP)  The Cretaceous Period extends from about 146 million years ago lo 65 million years ago.  The term 'Cretaceous' has been obtained from the Latin creta, meaning 'chalk'.  very widely distributed system in the country which has divergent facies of deposits in different parts of India.  This period is marked by the transgression of the sea (Coromandal coast, Narmada valley) and outpouring of huge quantity of lava (basalt) so as to form the Deccan Trap and intrusion of plutonic rocks such as gabbro and granite.  Towards the end of the Cretaceous period the Peninsula was affected by intense volcanic activity.  During this period, enormous quantity of basaltic lava was poured out to the surface assuming a great thickness of over three thousand metres.  The Lava Plateau (the Deccan Trap) is the result of that lava eruption.  The Deccan lava covers about five lakh sq km of area in Gujarat (Kachchh, Kathiawad), Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh (Malwa Plateau), Chhattisgarh,Jharkhand, northern Andhra Pradesh and north-western Karnataka.  The lava plateau of India (Deccan Trap) has a maximum thickness of about 3000 m along the coast of Mumbai from where it decreases towards south and east  It is about 800 m in Kachchh, 150 m at Amarkantak and 60 m at Belgaum (Karnataka).  The individual lava flows, on an average, have a thickness of about 5 m to 29 m.  Such flows have been identified in a boring near Bhusawal (Maharashtra).  These are inter-bedded with sedimentary beds called 'inter-trappean beds'.  The basalt of the Deccan Trap is used for the construction of roads and buildings.  Moreover, quartz, bauxite, magnetite, agate and semi-precious stones are also found in the trap. It is also rich in magnesium, carbonate, potash and phosphates. 8. THE TERTIARY SYSTEM (THE CENOZOIC ERA)  Cenozoic means recent life.  The beginning of the Tertiary Period is about 66 million years ago.  Fossils in these rocks include many types, closely related to modem forms, including mammals, plants and invertebrates.  The Cenozoic Era has two periods: The Tertiary and the Quaternary.  The two great events that occurred during the Tertiary Period include:  (i) the final beaking-up of the old Gondwana continent, and (ii) the uplift of the Tethys geosyncline in the form of the Himalayas. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  During the early Tertiary Period, as India collided with Tibet, the sediments which had been accumulating in the Tethys basin had begun to rise by a slow rise of ocean bottom.  The upheaval of the Himalayas altered the old topography of the subcontinent. Three phases of the upheaval of the Himalayas have been distinguished:  During the first upheaval (Eocene-about 65 million years ago), which culminated in the Oligocene, and resulted in the upheaval of the Greater Himalayas.  It was followed by a more intense movement during the mid-Miocene period about 45 million years ago, which resulted in the folding of Lesser Himalayas.  The third upheaval took place during the Post-Pliocene period, about 1.4 million years ago which resulted in the folding of Shiwaliks or the Outer Himalayas. There is enough evidence to prove that the Himalayas are still rising.  In the Peninsular region, the Tertiary System occurred on the coast of Kachchh, Kathiawar, Konkan, Malabar, Nilgiris, and the Eastern Ghats. 9. THE QUATERNARY PERJOO (THE PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT FORMATIONS)  Quaternary is the name proposed for very recent deposits, which contain fossils of species with living representatives.  The Northern Plains of India carne into existence during the Pleistocene Period.  During the Quaternary Period, the ice-sheets descended to as low as 1500 metres in altitude.  The third physical division of India which is the Great Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain had not figured at all till the Quaternary Period  The bottom configuration of this plain, occupies largely a synclinal basin, called foredeep, which is a downwarp of the Himalayan foreland of variable depth, formed concommitantly with the rise of the Himalayas to the north.  The Pleistocene period is marked by Ice Age and glaciation on a large scaJe in the Northern Hemisphere.  The moraine deposits and the lwrewa formations· of Kashmir Valley and the Bhadarwa (Doda District of Jammu Division) are of the Pleistocene period.  It forms the terraces of the Jhelum, on the flanks of the Pir-Panjal. The thickness of the karewas at places is up to 1400 metres.  The river terraces of the narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, etc. are also of the Pleistocene Period. Karewas  the lacustrine deposits of the Pleistocene period.  They consist of sands, clays, loams, silt and boulders.  The karewas of Kashmir are generally found along the lower slopes of Pir-Panjal with a dip towards the Kashmir Valley.  The Pampore and Pulwama karewas are well known for the cultivation of saffron, almond, and walnut RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN CHAPTER-2-PHYSIOGRAPHY Physiography  deals with the study of the surface features and landforms of the Earth.  On the basis of tectonic history, stratigraphy and physiography, India may be divided into the following four physiographic divisions 1. The elevated Peninsular region 2. The mighty Himalayas and their associated young folded mountains 3. The Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains 4. The Coastal Plains and Islands. ORIGIN AND PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PENINSULAR INDIA  The origin of rocks of Peninsular India is more than 3600 million years old.  Before the Carboniferous period, it was a part of the Gondwanaland.  the India Peninsula never subsided under the sea permanently.  more rigid, stable and had remained almost unaffected by the mountain building forces.  experienced block faulting and displacement during the subsequent periods as evidenced by the Dharwar and Gondwana formations and the fault valleys of the Narmada, Tapi and Son rivers.  It was during the Carboniferous Period that coal was formed in the Damodar, Son, Mahanadi and Godavari basins.  During the Cretaceous Period, large scale vulcanicity produced the Deccan Trap (the Lava Plateau of India), comprising lava sheets of several thousand metres in depth.  The Deccan Trap originated about 146 million years back when the magma flowed from th~ depth of about 4-0 km below the crust. Major Geological Formations of the Peninsular India (about 3600 million years ago)  The plateau of Peninsular India exhibits a complex system of geological structures.  has some of the oldest rocks of the world from the Precambrian period (Archaean) and the youngest rocks of the Holocene epoch (Quaternary/Recent period).  major rock systems found in the Peninsular India have been described blietly in the following section: 1. Thc Archacan Group  Ancient crystaliine and highly metamorphosed gneisses of the Archaean System are found in the plateaus of Tamil Nadu, Nilgiris, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhotanagpur, West Bengal, Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mikir, Bundelkhand (UP.) and the Aravallis (Rajasthan). RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  The Bengal gneiss known as Khondolite is found in the Eastern Ghats.  rich in metallic and non-metallic minerals, precious stones and building materials. 2. The Dharwar System  the oldest metamorphosed-sedimentary rocks found in narrow geosynclines flanking the Archaean gneiss.  occur mainly in (i) Dharwar, Bellary and Hospet districts of Kamataka, (ii) the Chhotanagpur Plateau, (iii) the upper reaches of Godavari (Durg, Bastar, Oantewala, Chandrapur, etc.), and (iv) the Aravallis (Delhi, Rajasthan, and Gujarat)  the majority of the Dharwar rocks had escaped folding completely and had deposited into the hollows and the corrugations of landmasses or were only mildly folded.  rich in iron ore, manganese, mica, copper, zinc, lead, silver, gold, slate, asbestos, marble, and limestone. 3. The Cuddapah System  The Cuddapah formations (Andhra Pradesh) occupies the deep basins of: (i) the lower valleys of Penganga and Godavari, (ii) the Talcher Series bet\,yeen Mahanadi and Brahmani (Orissa), the upper courses of the Nannada and Son rivers, and (iii) west of Aravallis near Jodhpur.  rich in building material, shales, limestone, and sandstone.  Some inferior quality of iron ore, manganese, copper, and asbestos are also found in these formations. 4. The Vindhyan System  The Central Indian Highlands known as the Vindhyan Mountains occupy a large basin extending from Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) in the west to Sasaram and Dehri-on-Son (Bihar) in the east.  One branch of it extends from Sasaram to Hoshingabad {Madhya Pradesh).  occupies a large contiguous area stretching over one lakh sq km from the C'hambaJ to Son rivers.  Several isolated exposures of sedimentary rocks occur in the Bastar area of Chhattisgarh.  In some of the exposures of the Vindhyan System are found the wamond bearing conglome1-ales.  The Panna District of Madhya Pradesh and the Kurnool District of Andh1·a Pradesh are well known for diamond production.  Elsewhere in the south, the upper Vindhyans are covered by the Deccan Traps.  The Vindhyam are known for the good quality of building materials. They are rich in ornamental stones, precious stones, diamonds and materials used in ceremics.  The historical monuments of the Medieval Period and majestic religious places like Stupa of Sanchi, Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Jama-Masjid, Birla Mandir, etc. have been onstructed with the red-sandstones obtained from the Vindhyan Ranges. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN 5. Gondwana System.  The coal belts of Peninsular India were developed during the Gondwana {Carboniferous) period.  The Talcher Series, the Damuda Series and the Panchet Series are the products of this period.  The rocks of the Upper Carboniferous Period., Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary, etc. are preserved in different parts of the Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna river basins. 6. The Deccan Trap  The Cretaceous system is a very widely distributed system in the country.  The Gondwanaland developed fissures and its broken parts started drifting from each other.  large scale upheaval of lava (basalt) from the interior of the Earth to form the Deccan Trap.  The eruption of lava was of the Hawaiian or fissure type.  This period is marked by the transgression of the sea (Narmada valley and Coromandal coast), and outpouring of huge quantity of basalt so as to form the Deccan Trap.  There had been intrusions of the plutonic rocks such as gabbro and granite.  The basalt of the Deccan Trap is used for the construction of roads and buildings. Moreover, there are quartzites, agates and carnelians in the lava formations of the Deccan Plateau. 7. The Tertiary System  The final fragmentation of the Gondwana took place during the Tertiary Period.  occurred faulting of the Peninsula alongwith the subsidence of the broken blocks beneath the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.  rocks are found in Kathiawar, Kachchh (Gujaral), Laki Series (Rajasthan), and along the Coromandal and Malabar coasts.  In north-east, they are found in the Meghalaya Plateau; the Jaintia Series. 8. The Pleistocene Period  found in the lower reaches and deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri and the western coastal plains of Gujarat, Konkan and Malabar.  more pronounced along the eastern coast of India. Physiography and Relief Features of Peninsular India  Covering an area of about l6 lakh sq km, the peninsular upland forms the largest physiographic division of India.  With a general elevation between 600-900 metres, the region constitutes an irregular triangle with its base lying between the Delhi Ridge and the Rajmahal Hills and the apex formed by Kanyakumari. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  It is bounded by the Aravallis in the north-west, Maika! Range in the north, Hazaribagh and Rajmahal Hills in the northeast, the Western Ghats {Sahayadri Mountains.) in the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east.  The highest peak of Peninsular India-Anai-Mudi (Nilgiris), is 2695 metres above sea level.  the Peninsular Uplands can be divided into the following eight macro-physiographic units The Physiographic Regions of Peninsular India Meso-Regions l. The North Central Highlands 2. The South Central Highlands 3. The Eastern Plateau 4. The Meghalaya-Mikir Uplands 5. The North Deccan 6. The South Deccan 7. The Western Ghats or Sahayadri 8. The Eastern Ghats 1. The North Central Highlands  The central highlands of peninsular India include the Aravallis, the Malwa Plateau, and the Vindhyan Range. i. The Aravallis:  runs from north-east to south-west for about 800 km, between Delhi to Palanpur (Gujarat).  one of the oldest folded mountains of the world.  Being highly denuded its highest peak-Guru-Sikhar-is only 1722 metres in height.  composed of quartzites, gneisses and schists of the Precambrian period.  Northwest of Udaipur, the Aravallis are calledjarga Hills (1431 m).  The Goranghai Pass separates Gurushikar from Mount Abu.  The Great Boundary Fault (GBF) separates the Aravallis from the Vindhyan Mountains. ii. The Malwa Plateau:  bordered by the Aravallis in the north, the Vindhyan Range in the south and the Bundelkhand Plateau in the east.  two drainage systems, one towards the Arabian Sea (Narmada, and Mahi), and another towards the Bay of Bengal (Charnbal, Sind, Betwa and Ken) joining the Yamuna river. 2. The South Central Highlands  The Vindhyan Range extends from Jobat (Gujarat) and Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) to Sasaram in Bihar.  extends for about 1050 km with general elevation between 450 to 600 metres. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  Apart from the Kaimur Hills in the east. the Maika! Range fonns.a connecting link between the Vindhyans and the Satpura mountains. (i) The Bundelkhand (Vmdhyachal Plateau):  It is bounded by the Yamuna river in the north Vindhyans in the south., the Chambal in the north- west and Panna-Ajaigarh Range in the south-east  The Bundelkhand upland stretches over the districts of Banda, Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi, and Lalitpur (U.P.}, and Datia, Tikamgarh, Chhatarpur and Panna (M.P.)  region is characterized by senile topography.  rivers like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken have carved out steep gorges, rapids, cataracts and waterfalls. (ii) The Vindhyachal-Baghelkhand or Vindhyachal Plateau:  includes the plateaux of Satna, Rewa (M.P.) and Mirzapur {U.P.). Its elevation varies between 150 to 1200 metres with uneven relief.  To the south of this lies the Narmada-Son trough (rift valley} characterized by the Archaeans and Bijwar series.  South of this trough is the eastward extension of the Satpura which is an area of radial drainage.  Among the basins, Singrauli and Dudhi (150-300 M) are Upper Gondwana basins, which are rich in coal deposits.  Besides the Narmada and Son, this region is drained by the Karmanasa, Tons, Ken and Belandare rivers.  Parallel to the Vindbyas between the Narmada and the Tapi rivers is the Satpura Range.  Satpura consists of Rajpipla Hills, Mahadev Hills and the Maikal Range.  Dhupgarh (1350 m, near Pachmarhi) is the highest peak of Satpura. Amarkantak {1064 metres) is another important peak of the Satpura mountains. 3. The Chotanagpur Plateau  sprawls over parts of West Bengai,Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and northeastern part of Andhra Pradesh.  has a series of the meso and micro plateaux (Ranchi, Hazaribagh, Singhbhum, Dhanbad, Palamu, Santhai-Parganas and Purulia districts of West Bengal).  composed of Archaean granite and gneiss rocks ·with patches of Dharwar (micaschists), the Damuda series of the Gondwana Period, and the lava flow of the Cretaceous Period.  consists of plateaux at different levels of elevation, the highest general elevation of about 1100 m in the mid-western part is known as pat lands.  The rivers which drain the Chhotanagpur Plateau are Barakar, Damodar, Subarnarekha, and Koels.  These rivers have carved out deep gorges, rapids, cataracts, and waterfalls in the plateau region. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN 4. The Meghalaya Plateau and the Mikir Hills  Consisting of the Garo, Khasi,Jaintia hills and the outlying Mikir and Rengma hills,  it is a plateau which has been detached from the Indian Peninsula by the Malda Gap.  a chequered evolutionary history of emergence, submergence, planation surface with several phsases of erosion, sedimentation, diastrophism and intrusions.  The Shillong Peak is the highest elevation (1823 m) in the Meghalaya Plateau, while Norkek (1515 m) is the highest peak of the Garo Hills..Mawsynram (25° 15'N, 91 °44'E} about 16 km west of Cherrapunji records the highest rainfall in the world.  The Mikir Hills are detached from the Meghalaya Plateau and are surrounded by plains from three sides.  The southern range of the Mikir Hills is known as the Rengma Hills (900 m).  The Mikir Hills are characterised by radial drainage with Dhansiri andjamuna being the main rivers. 5. The North Deccan (Maharashtra Plateau)  The plateau of Maharashtra includes the entire state of Maharashtra, except the Konkan coast and the Sahyadris.  mainly covered by the basalt of the Cretaceous Period.  The basaltic sheet has a thickness of about 3 km in the western parts which diminishes towards the east and south-east.  The most striking feature of the Maharashtra Plateau is the fault (1000 metres), giving rise to the present shoreline of the Arabian Sea.  Through the northern part of the Maharashtra Plateau flows the Tapi River from east to west.  has a gentle slope in the south and steep gradient in the north (towards the Satpura Hills). (i) The Mahanadi Basin:  Sprawling over the districts of Raipur, Bilaspur, Durg and Rajgarh, the Mahanadi basin is also known as the Chhattisgarh Plain.  The region is largely dominated by the Archaean and Cuddapah formations.  The Mahanadi river and its tributaries like Seonath, Hasdeo and Mana drain this plain. (ii) The Chhattisgarh Plain:  bordered by a series of hills and plateaux.  The northern boundary is formed by the Lomari Plateau, Pendra Plateau, the Chhuri and the Raigarh Hills.  The Korba coalfields of Chhattisgarh lie in this basin.  The Gondwana formations are rich in bituminous coal which is supplied to the Bhilai Steel Plant. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  The western rimland includes the Maikal Range with crest line of 700-900 metres.  The southern rimland includes the Dhalli-Rajhara Hills in southern Durg district and the Raipur uplands in the south-eastern Raipur districl  The Rajhara Hill contains Dharwarian rocks in which iron ore of haematite type is found.  The iron ore from the Dhalli-Rajahara mines is supplied to the Bhilai Steel Plant (iii) Garhjat Hills:  also known as the Orissa Highlands.  bordered by the Chotanagpur Plateau in the north, Mahanadi basin in the west, Eastern Ghats in the south and Utkal plains in the east  mainly composed of Archaean rocks like granite, gneisses and magmatic rocks.  The Gondwana, Talcher, Barakar and Kamathi series are also located in this region. (iv} Dandakaranya:  Sprawling over the Koraput and Kalahandi districts of Orissa, Bastar District of Chhattisgarh and East Godavari, Vishakhapatnam and Srikakulam districts of Andhra Pradesh,  Dandakaraoya is an undulating plateau.  Its Abujhmar Hills provide one of the richest iron-ore deposits at Bailadila Range.  drained by the Tel and Udantj; tributaries of Mahanadi, and the Sabari and Sileru; tributaries of Godavari rivers. 6. The South Deccan The south Deccan consists of several plateaux: (i) Karnataka Plateau:  spans in the slate of Karnataka and the Cannanore and Kozhikode districts of Kerala.  dominance of Archaean and Dharwar formations.  has an average elevation of 600-900 metres.  Mulangiri (1913 metres) is the highest peak in Baba-Budan Hills, followed by the Kudermukh (1892 metres) peak.  The northern upland of the Karnataka plateau is known as Malnad, while the southern part is called a Maidan.  drained by the Kaveri and the Tungbhadra rivers.  The Nandi valley is a summer resort in this region. (ii) The Telengana Plateau:  consists of Dharwar and Cuddapah formations. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN (iii) The Tamil Nadu Uplands;  lies between the South Sahyadri and Tamil Nadu coastal plains.  covered by the Archaean rocks.  The charnockites are found in Javadi and Shevaroy hills.  Moreover, there are Cuddapah and alluvial formations.  Between Coimbatore and Anaimalais, there is a broad gap, known as Palakkad Gap (Palghat), about 24 km wide, through which flows the Gayitri river from east to west joining Tamil Nadu with the coast of Kerala. 7. The Western Clults  The Western Ghats or Sahyadris run parallel to the western coast for about 1600 km in the north south direction from the mouth of the Tapi river to Kanyakumari (Cape Camorin).  The western slope of Sahyadri is steep while the eastern slope is gentle.  These are block mountains formed due to the down warping of a part of land into the Arabian Sea.  form a watershed of the peninsula.  All the important rivers of Peninsular India, like the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri rise from the Western Ghats.  The western rivers merging into the Arabian Sea are swift  The Gersoppa (Jog falls) on Sharvati is the highest waterfall in India.  The average elevation of the Western Ghats varies between 1000 to 1300 metres.  The important peaks of the Western Ghats are Kudermukh (1892 m), Pushpagiri {1714 m), KaJsubai (1646 m) and SaJher (1567 m), Mahabaleshwar (1438 m) and Harishchandra (1424 m}.  In the Nilgiris the Eastern Ghat joins the Western Ghat to form a mountain knot (Nilgiri} whose highest point is Anaimudi (2695 m).  South of Nilgiri lies the Palghat (Palak.kad Gap). The other important passes of the western Ghat are Thai Ghat and Bhor Ghat. Bhor Ghat:  Joins Mumbai with Pune  about 1000 metres above sea level,  one of the most busy passes in the Western Ghats.  The frequency of trains and commercial vehicles is enormous. Goran Ghat:  Lying to the south of Mount Abu, it connects the city of Udaipur with Sirohi and Jalore in Rajasthan.  about 1200 metres above sea level. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  The surrounding rocks are desolate, characterised by thorny bushes and cacti. Haldighat:  a mountain pass in the Aravalli range of Rajasthan.  Situated about 40 km from Udaipur, it connects Rajsamand and Pali district.  The name is believed to have come from the turmeric-coloured yellow soil.  The mountain pass is historically important as the location of the historic battle of Haldighat which took place in 1576 between Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar and Raja Mansingh of Amber, General of the Mughal Emperor-Akbar the Great. Harishchandra:  ranges in the southern parts of Maharashtra from north-west to south-east.  stretches in the districts of Pune and Osmanabad.  covered by degraded forests. Jog Falls:  The short westward flowing Sharavati river pours down the Western Ghats, forming one of the highest waterfalls in the world at 250 m. Kalsubai:  Situated in the state of Maharashtra,  one of the highest peaks of Western Ghats.  1646 metres above sea level.  Inhabited by tribal people, its forest wealth has diminished due to deforestation. Kudarmukh:  Situated in the state of Karnataka,  1892 m above sea level  rich in iron ore.  The iron ore is of haematite and magnetite type.  Iron ore from here is exported to Iran through the port at Mangalore. Mahabaleshwar:  an elevation of 1438 metres,  one of the important peaks of the Western Ghats.  a religious and cultural tourist attraction for domestic and international tourists. The Nilgiri Hills: RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  The Nilgiri Hills in the Western Ghats cover an area of about 2500 sq km and rise over 2500 m.  Udhagamandalam, one of southern India's most famous hill resorts, is located here. Palghat (Western Ghats ; joins Coimbarore with Kochi and Kozhikode):  Also known as the Palakkad Gap,  lies to the south of Nilgiri Hills.  an elevation ranging from 75 to 300m above the sea level.  The width of this gap is about 25 km.  joins the state of Tamil Nadu with the seaports of Kerala.  The river Gayitri flows through it from east to west. Pushpagiri:  one of the highest peaks of the Western Ghats.  elevation is 1714 metres above the sea level.  the abode of Dravidian tribes.  The forests are however, degraded and soil erosion is the main problem. Salher:  an elevation of 1567 metres above sea level,  the Salher peak lies between Malegaon and Nashik.  inhabited by tribal people.  Heavy deforestation has reduced its aesthetic beauty and created numerous ecological problems. Thal Ghat (Western Ghats; Joins Nasik and Mumbai):  Located in the Sahyadri Ranges,  over one thousand metres above sea level.  The National Highway No. 3 and the Bhopal Indore Railway Line pass through the Thai Ghat. 8. The Eastern Ghats  form the eastern boundary of the Deccan Plateau.  a massive outlying block of hills.  The average height of the Eastern Ghats is about 600 m.  a series of the detached hills of heterogeneous composition which are called by various local names.  Between Mahanadi and Godavari, the average elevation of the Eastern Ghats is about 1100 metres  The peak of Singaraju (Orissa) with an elevation of 1516 metres is the highest peak of the Eastern Ghats. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  Among other peaks Nimalgiri (1515 m) in the Koraput District and Mahendragiri (1501 m) in Ganjam District are the other important peaks.  The predominant rocks of the Eastern Ghats are khondalites, metamorphosed-sedimentary, and chamokites (intrusive rocks being granite).  Between the Krishna river and Chinnai are the Kondavidu, Nallarnalai, Velikonds, Palkonda, and Erramala Ranges.  Their continuation can be seen in the Seshachalam (Cuddapah and Anantapur dislricts), Javadi, Shevaroy, Panchaimalai, Sirumalai, and Varushnad Hills south west of Madurai (Tamil Nadu). Significance of the Peninsular Plateau The importance of Peninsular India is mainly because of the following benefits from its location and rock formations: (i) The Peninsular region of India is rich in both the metallic and non-metallic minerals. Mineral ores like iron, manganese, copper, bauxite, chromium, mica, gold, silver, zinc, lead, mercury, coal, diamond, precious stones, marble, building materials and decorative stones are found in abundance in this physiographic region. About 98 per cent of the Gondwana coal deposits of India are also found in the Peninsular region. (ii) A substantial part of the Peninsular India is covered by black earth (Regur soil). The regur soil is conducive for the successful cultivation of cotton, millets, maize. pulses, oranges and citrus fruits. Some areas of south Peninsular India are suitable for the cultivation of tea, coffee, rubber, cashew, spices, tobacco, groundnut and oilseeds. (iii) On the southern and eastern parts of Peninsular India are large stretches of Archaean, Dharwar, Cuddapah and Vindhyan formations in which red, brown and laterite soils have developed over time. These soils are the bases of rural economy. (iv) The Western Ghats, Nilgiris and the Eastern Ghats are covered by thick tropical moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forests. These forests provide teak, sal, sandalwood, ebony, mahogany, bamboo, cane, rosewood, iron-wood, and Iogwood as well as a large variety of forest products. {v) The rivers flowing eastward into the Bay of Bengal make several gorges, waterfalls, rapids and cataracts, which have been harnessed for the generation of hydro-electricity. The rivers originating from the Western Ghats offer great opportunity for the generation of hydel power and irrigation of agricultural crops and orchards. (vi) There are numerous hill stations and hill resorts, of which Ooty, Udhagamandalam, Kodaikonal, Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, Metheron, Pachmarhi, and Mount Abu are the most important. {vii) Apart from teak and fuelwood, the forests of Western and Eastern Ghats are rich in medicinal plants. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN (viii) The hilly and mountainous areas of the Peninsula are the abodes of many scheduled tribes. South of the Vindhyans is a predominance of Dravidian culture. THE HIMALAYAS  consist of four lithotectonic mountain ranges, namely (i) the Trans-Himalaya or the Tethys Himalaya, (ii) the Greater Himalaya, (iii) the Lesser Himalaya, and {iv) lhe Shiwalik orthe Outer Himalaya.  extend from the eastern boundary of Pakistan to the border of Myanmar for about 2500 km with a varying width of about 500 km in the west and about 320 km in the east.  lie to the north of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains and are separated from the plains by the Himalayan Front Fault (HFF).  include parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh.  Their offshoots run in a north-south direction along the India-Myanmar boundary through Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram. Origin of the Himalayas  The origin of the Himalayas has been a point of contention among the geologists and geomorphologists.  It is a complex mountain system having rocks from the Pre-Cambrian and Eocene periods. Mostly formed of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, it has been subjected to intense folding and faulting. The main theories about the origin of the Himalaya are as under: (i) The Geosynclinal Origin  main supporters Argand, Kober and Suess.  led to the formation of a long Tethys Sea between the Lauratian Shield (Angaraland) of the north and the Gondwanaland of the south.  This sea was occupying the region of Himalayas during the Mesozoic Era (l80 m years ago).  At the end of the Palaeozoic and beginning of the Mesozoic Eras, the Tethys almost girdled the whole Earth running from Europe in the west to China in the east Eroded material from the two land masses (Eurasian Shield -Angaraland and Gondwanaland) was deposited in the Tethys Sea and assumed considerable thickness due to the sinking nature of the sea bed.  During the Cretaceous Period, the bed of the sea started rising which led to the folding of three successive ranges of the Himalayas.  The first upheaval led to the formation of the Greater Himalayas during the Eocene Period (about 65 m years back). Similarly, the second upheaval took place during the Miocene Period (about 45 million years back) resulting in the formation of the Lesser Himalayas, and the third upheaval RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN started in the Pliocene period (about 1.4 million years back) resulting in the formation of the Shiwaliks or the Outer Himalayas. (ii) The Plate Tectonic Origin of the Himalayas  The theory of Plate Tectonics was put forward by WJ Morgan of Princeton University in 1967.  based on the concept of 'Sea-Floor Spreading' advocated by H. H. Hess.  about 70 or 65 million years ago there was an extensive geosyncline, called the Tethys, in place of the Himalayas.  About 60-30 million years ago the Indian plate came very close to the Asian plate and started subducting under the Asian plate.  caused lateral compression due to which the sediments of the Tethys were squeezed and folded into three parallel ranges of the Himalayas.  estimated that this convergence has caused a crustal shortening of about 500 km in the Himalayan region and is compensated by sea floor spreading along the oceanic ridge in the Indian ocean region.  Since the northward movement of the Indian plate is still continuing, the height of the Himalayan peaks is increasing.  The Indian Plate is moving northward and the center of rotation is constantly changing.  The continent-to-continent collision between the Indian and the Asiatic plates started around 65 million years ago and caused the Himalayas to rise from the Tethys geosyncline.  Thus, the first major phase of uplift in the Himalayas occurred around 65 million years ago.  This orogenic movement elevated the central axis of ancient crystalline and meta-sedimentary rocks which have been intruded by large masses of granite.  believed that the first major phase of uplift initially produced the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges of the Trans-Himalayas before the formation of the Great Himalayas.  Hence, it is to be realized that except the Kashmir part of the Himalayas, the Himalayan ranges have not developed from a geosyncline and are made up of elements formerly connected to the marginal parts of the Indian shield.  During the main Himalayan orogeny, this continuous geosynclinal sedimentation led to the underthrusting of the Indian shield against the Tibetan Massif which buckled down the geosynclinals deposits, resulting in the outflow of a large amounl of ultrabasic rocks known as ophiolites.  These ophiolites are seen as exotic blocks on the Ladakh and Zaskar Ranges of the Trans- Himalayas.  The end effect of the buckling of the geosyncline was not only the crustaline thrust effect on Ladakh and Zaskar leading to their rise as ranges, but also the creation of the sharp tectonic line of the Indus suture along which large geosynclinal areas disappeared. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  The intermontane basins in the Indus suture zone of Ladakh continued to receive molasses sedimentation in this period.  The second major uplift which took place around 45 million years ago, caused the rapid uplift of the southern mountain front of the Lesser Himalayas, giving rise to the extremely rugged and youthful Pir-Panjal, Dhauladhar, Karol, and Mahabharat Ranges abruptly and steeply.  The Greater Himalayas and the Lesser Himalayas are separated by the Main Central Thrust (MCT).  These spurs of the Lesser Himalayas again formed, in their tum, the intermontane basins of Kashmir, the Karol-basin, Dun Valley (Uttrakhand) and the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal.  The foredeep which was formed further away received the thick sequence of terrestrial sediments called Shiwaliks from the middle-Miocene to the middle-Pleistocene periods, covering a span ofabout 1.4 million years.  The Lesser Himalayas and the Sbiwaliks are separated from each other by the Main Boundary Thrust {MBT).  The 5000 metres thick Shiwaliks dominated by boulder and conglomerate, reflect the progressive uplift of the Himalayas from which they have been derived as a result of the third major phase of uplift.  The Shiwaliks are separated from the Northern Plains of India by the Himalayan Front Fault or HFF  The Shiwaliks form the normal jura type of structures with wider basin-like synclines alternating with steep, often faulted, asymmetric anticlines.  At present, the Himalayan Front Fault (HFF) is quite active recording frequent tremors and earthquakes. Physiographic Dhrislons of the Himalayas  For a systematic study of the physiography and relief, the Himalayas may be divided into the following four divisions from north to south: I. The Trans-Himalayas 2. The Greater Himalayas 3. The Lesser Himalayas 4. The Shiwaliks or the Outer Himalayas. 1. The Trans-Himalayas  about 40 km wide.  contain the Tethys sediments.  The rocks of this region contain fossils bearing marine sediments which are underlain by 'Tertiary granite'.  partly metamorphosed sediments and constitutes the core of the Himalayan axis. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  a great accumulation of debris in the valleys of defeated streams which could not maintain their southerly course across the rising barrier of the Himalayas. 2. The Greater Himalayas  rise abruptly like a wall north of the Lesser Himalayas.  The Main Central Thrust separates the Greater Himalayas from the Lesser Himalayas.  about 25 km wide with an average height above 5000 metres.  Almost all the lofty peaks of the Himalayas lie in this zone.  composed of crystalline, igneous or metamorphic rocks (granite, schists, and geneiss).  The basal complex of the Himalayas is Archaean.  At places, due to heavy thrust, older rocks are found overlying the newer rocks.  almost a contiguous range.  very few gaps mainly provided by the antecedent rivers.  receive less rainfall as compared to the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks.  Physical weathering is pronounced.  Erosion is, however less effective over the Greater Himalayas as compared to the Lesser Himalayas.  Being lofty, they have very little forest area. 3. The Lesser Himalayas  about 80 km with an average height of 1300-5000 m.  consists, generally, of unfossiliferous sediments or metamorphosed crystalline.  main rocks are slate, limestone and quartzites.  Along the southern margin of the Lesser Himalayas lies the autochthonous belt of highly compressed Upper Palaeozoic to Eocene rocks, often containing volcanic material.  Examples of autochthonous belts are found between Murree and Panjal thrust in Kashmir, Giri thrusts in the Shimla region and Karol and Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in Garhwal region.  extensive erosion due to heavy rainfall, deforestation and urbanisation. 4. The Shiwaliks or Outer Himalayas/Sub-Himalayas  extend from jammu Division of jammu and Kashmir State to Assam.  In width, Shiwaliks vary from 8 km in the east to 45 km in the west with an average elevation of about1300 m above sea level.  not a continuous range.  broader in the west and narrows down in the east.  Between the Shiwaliks and the Lesser Himalayas are longitudinal valleys called Doons/ Duns.  important Duns are Dehra Dun, Potli, Kothri, Kathmandu, Chumbi and Kyarda. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  mainly composed of sandstones, sand rocks, clay, conglomerates and limstones, mostly belonging to the Upper Tertiary Period. Longitudinal Divisions of the Himalayas  The Himalayas have also been divided by Sir S. Burrard into four divisions, namely (i) The Western Himalayas, (ii) The Kumaun Himalayas, {iii) The Nepal Himalayas, and (iv) The Assam Himalayas. Prof. S.P. Chatterjee (1973), divided the Himalayas into the following six transverse divisions: 1. The Kashmir Himalayas 2. The Himachal Himalayas 3. The Kumaun Himalayas 4. The Sikkim Himalayas 5. The Arunachal Himalayas 6. Purvanchal Himalayas 1. The Kashmir Himalayas  about 350,000 sq km in the state of jammu and Kashmir, the range stretches about 700 km in length and 500 km in width.  With an average height of 3000 m, it has the largest number of glaciers in India.  The Ladakh region of the Kashmir Himalayas is characterised by cold desert conditions. Surrounded by the Greater Himalayas and the Lesser Himalayas is the Kashmir Valley.  a structural longitudinal 'Doon' (D.N. Wadia).  A special feature of the Vale of Kashmir is the Karewa (lacustrine) deposits consisting of silt, sand and clay.  These karewas are mainly devoted to the cultivation of saffron and have orchards of apple, peach, almond, walnut and apricot  characterised by high snow covered peaks, deep valleys, interlocked spurs and high mountain passes.  Pir-Panjal, Banihal (Jawahar Tunnel), ZojiLa, Pensi-La, Saser-La, Lanak-La, Jara-La, Taska-La, Chang-La, Umasi-La., and Qara-Tagh-La (Karakoram) are the important passes of the Kashmir Himalayas The Himadri  Called the abode of gods, this section of the Himalayas has many snow capped peaks, such as Nanda Devi, Kamet and Trishul. 2. The Himachal Himalayas  Stretching over Himachal Pradesh, it occupies an area of about 45,000 sq km. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  All the three ranges (the Greater, the Lesser and the Outer Himalayas) are well represented in this region.  The northem slopes of the Himachal Himalayas are bare and show plains and lakes, while the southern slopes are rugged and forest clad.  Rohtang, Bara.-Lacha, lmis-La, and Shipki-La are the important passes which join Himachal Pradesh with Tibet (China).  The beautiful and highly productive valleys of Kangra, Kullu, Manali, Lahul, and Spiti lie in Himachal Pradesh.  These valleys are well known for orchards and scenic beauty.  ShimIa, Dalhousie, Chamba, Kullu-Manali are the important hill stations of this region. 3. The Kumaun Himalayas  lie between the Satluj and the Kali rivers, stretching to a length of 320 km and occupying an area of about 38,000 sq Jan.  Its highest peak is Nanda Devi (7817 m).  Among the other peaks Kamet (7756 m), Trisul (7140 m), Badrinath (7138), Kedarnath (6940 rn), Dunagiri (7066 m), jaonli or Shivling (6638 m), Gangotri {6615 m), and Bandarpunch (6320 m) are importanl Gangotri, Milam, and Pindar are the main glaciers of Uttarakhand.  The important hill stations include Mussorrie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora, and Bageshwar.  The Kumaun Himalayas are connected to Tibet by a number of passes namely, Muling-La (5669 m), Mana Pass, Niti Pass, (5068 m), Tun:Jun-La, Shalsal Pass, Balcha Dhu.ra. Kungrinbingri Pass, Lampiya Dhura, Mangsha Dhura, Marhi-La (4993 m), and Lipu Lekh. 4. The Central Himalayas  stretches from river Kali to river Tista for about 800 km occupying an area of about 116,800 sq km.  A major part of it lies in Nepal except the extreme eastern part called Sikkim Himalayas and in the Darjeeling District of West Bengal.  All the three ranges of the Himalayas are represented here.  The highest peaks of the world like Mt. Everest (8850 m), Kanchenjunga (8598 m), Makalu (8481 m), Dhaulagiri (8168 m), Annapurna (8075 m), and Gosainath (8014 m) are situated in this part of the Himalayas.  has very few passes.  The passes of NathuLa and Jelep-La (4538 m in Sikkim) connect Gangtok (Sik.kim) with Lhasa {Tibet, China). Kanchenjunga:  Situated on the border of Sikkim and Tibet, RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  the third highest mountain peak in the world.  It is 8,598 metres above sea level and remains snow covered throughout the year.  Some of the important rivers of India like Kosi and Tista have their origin in this mountain. 5. The Eastern Himalayas  lie between the Tista and the Brahmaputra rivers, covering a distance of about 720 km with an area of 67,500 sq krn.  The Eastern Himalayas occupy the state of Arunachal Pradesh (India) and Bhutan.  the Himalayas rise very rapidly from the plains of Assam, and the foothills of Shiwaliks are very narrow.  The Eastern Himalaya include the Aka Hills, the Daphla Hills, Miri Hills, Abor Hills, Mishmi Hills, and Namcha Barwa.  has a number of mountain passes among which Bomdi-La, Tse-La, Dihang, Debang (Arunachal Pradesh) are the most important  In the Eastern Himalayas, due to heavy rainfall, fluvial erosion is quite pronounced.  On the southern border of Arunachal Pradesh, the Himalayas take a southerly turn and the ranges are arranged in a north-south direction.  Passing through the states of Arunachal Pradesh (Tirap Division} Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, and Mizoram, the Himalayas are locally known as Purvachal.  The main hills of the Eastern Himalayas are Patkai-Bum (Arunachal Pradesh), NagaHills (Nagaland), Manipur Hills, Blue Mountains (Mizoram), Tripura Range, and Brail range.  On the border of Nagaland and Myanmar lies the Arakanyoma.  heavily forested.  Northern Myanmar is connected through Diphu, Hpungan, Chaukan, Pangsau, and Likhapani (Arunachal Pradesh).  Southwards, a pass joins Imphal (Manipur) with Mandalay (Myanmar).  The Purvanchal is joined by the Meghalaya Plateau in the west.  The extension of the Myanmar mountain chain continues southward up to Andaman and Nicobar Islands and even up to the Archipelago of Indonesia. The Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas  The general east-west trend of the Himalayas terminates suddenly at its western and eastern extremities and the ranges are sharply bent southward in deep knee-bend flextures which are called syntaxial bends.  The western syntaxial bend is near Nanga Prabat where the Indus has cut a deep gorge.  The geological formation here takes sharp hairpin bends as if they were bent round pivotal points obstructing them. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  There is a similar hair-pin bend in Arunachal Pradesh where the mountains take a sharp bend from the eastern Lo southern direction after crossing the Brahmaputra river.  The tectonic strike also undergoes a deep k-nee-bend from an easterly to southerly trend. Main Passes of Himalayas Aghil Pass (Karakoram-Ladakh):  Situated to the north of K2 in the Karakoram at an elevation of about 5000 m above the sea level,  joins Ladakh with the Xinjiang (Sinkiang) Province of China.  remains closed during the winter season from November to the first week of May Banihal Pass (Jawahar Tunnel):  Situated at an elevation of 2832 min the Pir-Panjal Range,  it joins Jammu with Srinagar.  The pass remains snow covered during the winter season.  The jawahar Tunnel{named after PanditJawaharlal Nehru), inaugurated in December 1956, was constructed for round-the-year surface transport. Bara Lacha (Himachal Pradesh with Leh-Ladakh):  Situated in the state of jammu and Kashmir at an altitude of 5045 m.  It is on the National Highway connecting Manali and Leh.  Being a high mountain pass, it remains snow covered from November to mid-May. Bomdi La (4331 m, Arunachal Pradesh):  Situated to the east of Bhutan in the Greater Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh at an altitude of about 2600 m above sea level,  it connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhasa, the capital of Tibet.  It remains closed in the winter season owing to snowfall and adverse weather. Bunail Pass (Srinagar with Kishan-Ganga Valley):  Situated at an altitude of more than five thousand feet above sea level  this pass connects Ladakh with China.  Being snow covered during the winter season it remains closed for trade and transport. Chang-La (Ladakh with Tibet):  Situated at an elevation of over 5270 m, it is a high mountain pass in the Greater Himalayas.  The road after Chang-Ia is extremely steep, leading to the small town of tangtse.  The pass has a temple dedicated to Chang-la Baba after whom the pass has been named. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  Being snow-covered, it remains closed during the ·winter season. Debsa Pass:  Situated at an elevation of 5270 m above sea level,  it is a high mountain pass in Greater Himalayas between the Kullu and Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh.  This pass provides an easier and shorler alternative to lhe traditional Pin-Parbati Pass route between Kullu and Spiti. Dihang Pass:  Situated in the state of Arunachal Pradesh at an elevation of about 4000 feet  this pass connects Arunachal Pradesh with Mandalay (Myanmar}. Diphu Pass (Arunachal Pradesh with Mandalay in Myanmar):  Situated in the eastern part of Arunachal Pradesh,  provides an easy and shortest access to Mandalaya {Myanmar).  a traditional pass between India and Myanmar which remains open throughout the year for transportation and trade. Imis La:  Situated at an elevation of over 4500 m,  this pass provides an easy access between Ladakh and Tibet (China).  It has a difficult terrain, steep slopes, and remains closed during the winter season. Khardung La:  Situated at an elevation of more than six thousand m above sea level,  it is the highest motorable pass in the country.  The road, however, remains closed during the winter season. Khunjerab Pass (Karakoram):  Situated at an altitude of more than five thousand feet in the Karakoram Mountains,  it is a traditional pass between Ladakh and the Sinkiang Province of China.  It remains snow covered during the winter season from November to mid-May. Jelep La (4538 m):  Situated at an elevation of 4538 m above sea level,  this pass connects Sikkim with Lhasa. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  It passes through the Chumbi Valley. Lanak La:  Situated at an altitude of about five thousand metres in the Aksai-Chin (Ladakh),  it connects Ladakh with Lhasa.  The Chinese have constructed a road to connect the Xinjiang (Sinkiang) Province of China with Tibet. Likhapani (Arunachal Pradesh):  Situated at an altitude of more than four thousand metres above sea level,  the Likhapani Pass joins Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar.  For trade and transport, it remains open throughout the year. Lipu Lakh (Uttarakhand):  Situated in the Pithoragarh District,  it connects Uttarakhand with Tibet  The pilgrims for Mansarovar Lake travel through this pass.  Landslides in the rainy season and avalanches in winter create great problems for movement and transportation. Mana Pass:  Situated at an elevation of.5611 m above sea level in the Greater Himalayas,  it connects Uttarakhand with Tibet.  It remains snow covered for about six months during the winter season. Mangsha Dhura Pass:  Situated at an elevation of more than five thousand metres in the district of Pithoragarh,  the Mangsha Dhura Pass connects Uttarakhand with Tibet.  The pilgrims for Mansarovar cross this pass. Landslides create great problems for tourists and pilgrims.. Muling La (Uttarakhand):  Situated north of Gangotri,  this seasonal pass joins Uttarakhand with Tibet.  It remains snow covered during the winter season. Nathu La (Sikkim): RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  Nathu La is located on the Indo-China border.  The pass, at 4310 m above sea leveL forms part of an offshoot of the ancient Silk Road.  one of the three trading border posts between India and China. After the 1962 war it was reopened in 2006. Niti Pass:  Situated at an altitude of 5068 m above sea level,  the Niti Pass joins Uttarakhand with Tibet  It remains snow covered during the winter season between November and mid-May. Pangsan Pass (Arunachal Pardesh):  Situated at an elevation of more than four thousand metres above sea level,  this pass connects Arunachal Pradesh with Mandalaya (Myanmar). Pensi La:  Situated in the Greater Himalayas at an elevation of more than five thousand metres above sea level to the east of Zoji La,  this pass connects the Valley of Kashmir with Kargil (Ladakh).  It remains snow covered from November to mid-May. Pir-Panjal Pass:  The traditional pass from jammu to Srinagar, this pass lies on the Mughal Road.  After partition of the Subcontinent, the pass was closed down.  provides the shortest and easiest metalled road access from Jammu to the Valley of Kashmir. Qara Tagh Pass:  Located in the Karakoram Mountains at an elevation of more than six thousand feet above sea level,  this pass was an offshoot of the Great Silk Road.  It remains snow covered during the winter season. Rohtang Pass:  Located at an elevation of 3979 m above sea level,  this pass connects the Kullu, the Lahul and Spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh.  It has excellent road access, constructed by the Border Road Organisation (BRO).  Traffic jams are common occurrences caused by the heavy movement of military vehicles, buses, taxis, trucks and goods carriers. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN Shipki La:  Located at an altitude of more than 6000 m above sea level·  through the Satluj Gorge, the Shipki-La joins Himachal Pradesh with Tibet.  It remains snow covered during the winter season. Thang La (Ladakh):  Located at an elevation of 5359 m above sea level, i  a mountain pass in Ladakh (J & K}.  the second highest motora'ble mountain pass in India after Khardung La. Traills Pass:  Located at an elevation of 5212 m above sea level in the Pithoragarh and Bageshwar districts of Uttarakhand,  it is situated at the end of the Pindari Glacier and links Pindari Valley to Milam Valley.  Being steep and rugged, this pass is very difficult to cross. Zoji La:  Located at an altitude of 3'850 m above sea level,  it joins Srinagar with Kargil and Leh. Because of heavy snowfall, it remains closed from December to mid-May.  The Border Road Organisation (B RO) has been trying to keep the road open for most part of the year.  Beacon Force of Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible for clearing and maintenance of the road during the winter season.  Recently, the Srinagar-Zoji-La Road has been declared a National · Highway (NH-l D) by the centre. Gladers and Snowline  The lower limit of perpetual snow is known as 'snowline'.  The snowline in the Himalayas has different heights in different parts, depending on latitude, altitude, amount of precipitation, mouisture, slope and local topography.  There are about 15,000 glaciers in the Himalayas lying between the two syntaxial bends in the east and the west.  In the Assam Himalaya, the snowline is about 4400 metres, whereas in the Kashmir Himalayas it varies between 5100 to 5800 metres.  In the Kumaun Himalaya the snowline is about 5200 metres and about 5500 metres in the Karakoram. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  On the Tibetan side, the altitude of the snowline is about 900 metres higher owing to great desiccation of the region and scarcity of moisture.  Thus, there is a direct relationship between the presence of moisture and the altitude of the snowline.  In general, more the moisture in the atmosphere, lower the altitude of the snowline and vice versa.  The main glaciers in the northern mountains are found in the Greater Himalayas and the Trans- Himalayan mountains (Karakoram, Ladakh and Zaskar).  The Lesser Himalayas have small glaciers, though traces of large glaciers are found in the Pir- Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges.  Most of the glaciers of the Lesser Himalayas are smaller in size, ranging from 3 to 5 km in length.  There are, however, some larger-sized glaciers also in Karakoram and the Greater Himalayas.  Some of the important glaciers are Siachen {75 km), Sasajni (68 km), Hispara (61 km), Biafo (60 krn), Baltora (58 km) (Karakoram mount.ams).  The Chogo Lungma Glacier (50 km) terminates at an altitude of 2070 m, the lowest recorded in the Himalayas.  In Uttrakhand, Gangotri, Milam and Pind.ari are the main glaciers. The glaciers of Karakoram are the remnants of the Pleistocene Age.  The diurnal rate of movement of these glaciers is between 8 to 15 em at the side and 20 to 30 em in the middle.  The glaciers of the Pir-Panjal are less numerous and smaller in size as compared to those of the Karakoram and the Greater Himalayan ranges.  The longest glacier of the Pir-Panjal is Sonapani glacier in the Chandra Valley of Lahul and Spiti region.  Its length is about 15 km at an altitude of about 4000 m near the Rohtang Pass.  The largest glacier in the NunKun peak is the Gangri Glacier which is about 13 km in length.  The glaciers of the Nanga Parbat Massif are small in size and are moving fast due to a steep slope.  The Chungphar, Rakhiot, Buzhi and Tashan are the other important glaciers of the Pir-Panjal Range.  The glaciers are not only the source of Himalayan rivers, but also maintain a regular supply of water in these rivers during off monsoon period.  The Himalayan glaciers are, however, receding. Ice Ages In India  The subcontinent of India recorded several ice ages. A brief description of the Indian Ice Ages has been given in the following section: 1. The Dharwar Ice Age RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  The moraine deposits and other glaciated topographical features observed in the Dharwar District of Karnataka indicate an ice age during the Dharwadian Period, i.e. about 700 million years ago. 2. The Gondwana lce Age  The Talcher Series (Orissa) of the Gondwana System provides a good proof of the glaciation during the Gondwana Period. 3. The Pleistocene Ice Age  During the Pleistocene Period the effect of ice age was noticed in the Himalayas, especially in the Karakoram and the Greater Himalayan ranges.  The erratic rocks, boulders, cirques, eskers, rock polishing, buff-coloured sands, and luminated clays inter-stratified among the karewas deposits of Kashmir, Bhadarwa {Doda), and Ladakh give enough proof of the Pleistocene glaciation.  The Pleistocene glaciation also led to the formation of a number of high altitud~ glacial lakes of the Himalayas.  The Kailash-Kund, the Sanasar Lake near Batote, the Gulmarg-basin, the Sbeshnag, and the Gangabal Lake are some of the examples of this type of lakes.  The Peninsular part of India has no evidence of Pleistocene glaciation. The Significance of the Himalayas  The mighty Himalayas are the most pronounced and dominating physiographic feature of the subcontinent of India. It has often been said that the Himalayas are the body and soul of India. The significance of the Himalayas has been given briefly in the following lines; 1. Climatic Influence 2. Defence 3. Source of Perennial Rivers 4. Source of Fertile Soils 5. Generation of Hydroelectricity 6. Forest Wealth 7. Orchards 8. Minerals 9. Tourism 10. Pilgrimage THE GREAT PlAINS OF INDIA  The Great Plains of India lie to the south of the Shiwalik separated by the Himalayan Front Fault (HFF).  It is a transitional zone between the Himalayas of the north and Peninsular India of the south. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  It is an aggradational plain formed by the alluvial deposits of the Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries.  The plain stretches for about 2400 km from west to east.  It has varying width; 90-100 km in Assam, 160 km near Rajmahal Uharkhand), 200 km in Bihar, 280 km near Allahabad and 500 km in Punjab.  In general, the width of the plain increases from east lowest.  The Great Plains of India consist largely of alluvial deposits brought down by the rivers originating in the Himalayan and the Peninsular region.  The exact depth of alluvium has not yet been fully determined.  the average depth of alluvium in the southern side of the plain (north of Bundelkhand) varies between 1300 to 1400 metres, while towards the Shiwaliks, the depth of alluvium increases.  The maximum depth of over 8000 metres has been reached near Ambala, Yamunanagar and jagadhri (Haryana).  The Great plains are remarkably homogeneous with little variation in relief features for hundreds of kilometers.  The monotony of the physical landscape is broken at micro-level by the river bluffs, Bhurs, levees, dead-arms of river channels, the ravines and kiwis.  Changing river courses in the areas of frequent floods is a unique geomorphic process in the plains.  The frequent floods, although a cause of immense damage to life and property, lay down fresh layer of silts in the flood-plains every year, providing rich fertile soils. Origin of the Great Plains of India Alluviation of the Foredeep  According to Edward Suess, an eminent Austrian geologist, a 'foredeep' was formed in front of the high crust-waves of the Himalayas as they were checked in their southward advance by the more Recession of the Sea  In the opinion of Blandford, during the Eocene Period, Peninsular India was joined together with Africa.  During that period, there was one sea extending from Assam Valley to the Irrawaddy river (Myanmar} in the east and another from Iran and Baluchistan to Ladakh (Indus Valley) in the west  During the last part of the Eocene Period, arms of the Western Sea extended up to Punjab.  Due to the rise of the Himalayas during the Miocene Period, these seas started receding by gradual deposits of sediments from the Himalayan rivers.  After a prolonged period of sedimentation and subsidence, these gulfs (Gulf of Sind in the west and the Eastern Gulf up to the Shillong Plateau) were filled up, resulting in the formation of the Northern Plains of India. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  The evidences cited in favour of the recession of the sea include: (i) the occurrence of limestone rocks in Kumaun-Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, (ii) the presence of saline water lakes in Rajasthan (iii) the joining of the islands of the Gulf of Kachchh with the mainland, (iv) the seaward extension of the Sundarban Delta, (v) the emergence of new islands near Bangladesh coast, and (vi) the presence of marine fossils in the sediments of the Northern Plains of India.  The theory, however, fails to give convincing arguments so far as the region of the central portion of the plain is concerned. Remnant of the Tethys  Some of the geologists and geomorphologists opine that the Great Plains of India are a remnant of the Tethys Sea.  According to them, after the upheaval of the Shiwaliks, the remaining part of the Tethys was left as a large trough which was joined to the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west Rivers from the Himalayas deposited their load in the trough.  Because the Himalayas were rising during that period, rivers experienced rejuvenation and greater quantity of eroded material which increased the thickness of the alluviums.  Due to infilling of the central part of the trough the seas located in the east and the west started receding, and the Great Plains of India came into existence. Recent Views  the Northern Plains of India represent a sag in the crust fom1ed between the northward drifting of the Indian Subcontinent and the comparatively soft sediments accumulated in the Tethyan basin when the latter were crumpled and lifted up into a mountain system. Physiographic Divisions of the Great Plains of India  a remarkably homogeneous surface with an imperceptible slope.  In fact, they are a feature less alluvial fertile plains formed mostly by the depositional process of the Himalayan and Vindhyan rivers.  deposit enormous quantity of sediments along the foothills. Beyond the foothills, the rivers deposit the alluvium in their flood plains. The Northern Plains of India may be divided into the following sub-regions: 1. The Bhabar Plain  It lies to the south of the Shiwalik from west to east (Jammu Division to Assam).  Its width is however, more in the western plains than in the eastern plains of Assam. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  In width, the Bhabar tract is generally 8 to 15 km, consisting of gravel and unassorted sediments deposited by the rivers Sunderban:  The largest mangrove swamp in the world,  the Sundarbans, or the beautiful forest., gets its name from the Sundari tree which grows well in marshland.  It is home to the Royal Tiger and crocodiles. The Brahmaputra Plain  Stretching over an area of about 56,275 sq km,  Lie in eastern part of the Great Plains of India.  It is about 720 km long and about 80 km wide.  The region is surrounded by high mountains on all sides, except on the west It is a depositional plain.  The general altitude of the Brahmaputra Plain varies between 130 m in the east to only 30 m in the west.  The Assam Valley is characterised by a steep slope along its northern margin but the southern side has a gradual fall from the Meghalaya Plateau.  The whole length of the plain is traversed by the Brahmaputra.  Due to the low gradient, the Brahmaputra is a highly braided river having numerous islands.  The Andaman Islands are thickly forested and have a rich marine life among the reefs.  The islands are a birdwatcher's paradise with 242 species recorded.  The entire region falls in a major earthquake zone.  The Barren Island in the Andamans has an active volcano. In the Bay of Bengal, there are two volcanic islands {BaiTen and Narcondam) situated within 80 km east of the Andaman Islands.  The Andaman Islands have been formed by the extension of the Tertiary mountain chain of Arakanyoma.  The main rocks of these islands are sandstone, lime· stone and shale.  The Nicobar group of islands comprise 18 islands of which only 11 are inhabited.  The physiography of the Nicobar islands is mainly of coral origin.  Rice is the main crop in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Coconut and arecanut are the main cash crops of Nicobar.  Tropical fruits like pineapple, a variety of bananas, sweet papaya and mango grow on a smaller scale in the Andaman an group of islands.  The Tribal population in the Andaman Islands is fast dwindling.  Most of its present inhabitants are migrants from Bangladesh, Myanmar, and India and Tamils from Sri Lanka. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSAIN  Some of the well-known surviving tribes of the Andamans and Nicobar are the Onges,Jarawas and Sentinelese.  One of the largest and also the rarest crabs in the world, the Giant Robber Crab, can be found in the Wandoor Marine Biosphere Reserve in south Andaman and Great Nicobar Islands.  Its powerful claws help it to climb the coconut tree and break the hard shell of its fruit. The Arabian Sea Islands  There are 43 islands in the Arabian Sea, out of which only 10 are inhabited.  The shortest distance from the mainland {Calicut) is about 109 km.  Kavaratti, located on the island of this name is the capital of Lakshadweep.  Lakshadweep islands are separated from the Maldive Islands by the Eight Degree Channel. Hills and streams are absent on these islands.  The Minicoy is the largest (4.5 sq km} and has a light house and a weather observatory.  Fishing is the main occupation of the people of Lakshadweep.  In Lakshadweep coconut is the only major crop, although pulses and vegetables are also grown.  The sea around the island is rich in marine life. Offshore Islands  There are numerous islands in the delta region of Ganga and in the Gulf of Mannar.  Among the Western coast islands Piram, Bhaisala (Kathiawar}, Diu, Vaida, Nora, Pirtan, Karunbhar (Kachchh coast),.Khadiahet, Aliabet (Narmada·Tapi mouths), Butchers, Elephanta, Karanja, Cross (near Mumbai), Bhatkal, Pegioncock, St. Mary {Mangalore coast), A.rljidiv (GQa coast), Vypin near Kochi, Pam ban, Crocodile, Adunda (Gulf of Mannar), Sri Harik.ota (mouth of Pulicat Lake, Pairkud (mouth of Chilka Lake), Short, Wheeler (Mahanadi·Brahmani mouth), and New Moore, and Ganga-Sagar and Sagar (Ganga Delta).  Many of these islands are uninhabited and administered by the adjacent states. EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA  Earthquakes are vibrations of the Earth caused by ruptures and sudden movements of rocks that have been strained beyond their' elastic limits.  In other words, earthquakes are movements within the earth caused by natural or man-made stresses.  Earthquakes are caused by (i) volcanic eruptions, (ii) ruptures and sudden movements of rocks (folding and faulting), (iii) movement of plates (plate tectonics), and (iv) anthropogenic factors. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSIAN CHAPTER-3-DRAINAGE THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM  an integrated system of tributaries and a bunk stream which collect and funnel surface water to the sea, lake or some other body of water.  The total area that contributes water to a single drainage system is known as a drainage basin.  a basic spatial geomorphic unit of a river system, distinguished from a neighboring basin by ridges and highlands that form divides. Thus, river basins are natural units of land. They are regarded as the fundamental geomorphic as well as hydrological units for a systematic study of the river basins, mainly due to the following three reasons: (i) They can be placed in an orderly hierarchy, (ii) They are areal units whose geomorphological and hydrological characteristics can be measured quantitatively, and (iii} They can be treated as working systems with energy inputs of climatological variables like temperature and rainfall and output of river discharge as runoff.  The Committee on Runoff of the American Geophysical Union treats the micro-unit within a river basin as the watershed, while the sum of all the micro, meso and macro tributaries of a river is known as a river basin. DRAINAGE PATTERN  A geometric arrangement of streams in a region; determined by slope, differing rock resistance to weathering and erosion. climate, hydrologic variability, and structural controls of the landscape is known as a drainage pattern.  In other words, drainage pattern refers to a design which a river and its tributaries form together, from its source to its mouth.  The factors controlling the pattern of drainage in a region include the topography, slope, structural control, nature of rocks, tectonic activities, supply of water, and above all, the geological history of that region. In India, the following type of drainage patterns are found: RIVER BASINS OF INDIA  The area drained by the main river including all its tributaries is known as its drainage basin.  On the basis of the area drained, the river basins of India have been classified into three categories: (i) river basins with catchment area of more than 20,000 sq km known as large river basins; (ii) river basins having a catchment area between 2000 to 20,000 sq km known as the medium basins, and (iii) the rivers having a catchment area less than 2000 sq km known as minor river basins.  India has one hundred and thirteen river basins, of which 14 are large, 44 medium and 55 minor river basins.  The major river basins of India in descending order of area are: the Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, Luni, Mahanadi, Narmada, Kaveri, Tapi, Mahi, Sabarmati, Barak, and Subarnarekha. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSIAN  The major river basins form about 84 per cent of the total drainage area of the country  The three major river systems (Ganga., Indus, and Brahmaputra) are international rivers.  The Indus and some of its important tributaries traverse Tibet (China), India, and Pakistan while the Ganga and Brahmaputra, and their tributaries cross Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.  On the basis of mode of origin, the drainage of India may be divided into {i) Himalayan or the Extra-Peninsular Drainage, and {ii) the Peninsular Drainage.  There is no clearcut line of demarcation between these two drainage systems, as many of the Peninsular rivers like the Chambal, Betwa, Sind, Ken, and Son are much older in age and origin than the Himalayan rivers. RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE  The rivers originating from the Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan regions consist of three river systems, namely: (i) the Indus System, (ii) the Ganga System, and (iii) the Brahmaputra System 1. The Yamuna River(length "1.380 km.)  the longest and the western-most tributary of the Ganga.  source lies in the Yamunotri Glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch {6316 m).  Downwards, it is joined by Tons river behind the Mussoorie Range (Uttarakhand).  From the Mussoorie Range, it debouches into the plains where it flows in a broad curve.  Making a boundary between Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, it passes Delhi, Mathura, Agra and flows southward until it joins the Ganga at Allahabad.  The important tributaries of the Yamuna are mostly the right bank tributruies, originating from the Aravallis (Rajasthan), Vindhyan Range, and the Malwa Plateau of Madhya Pradesh.  The Chambal, Sind, Behva, Ken and Tons are the main right hand tributaries of the Yamuna River.  It is believed that during the Vedic period, the River Yamuna might have flowed towards south and southwest through Bikaner in Rajasthan, and shared its water with the legendary River Saraswati. The Chambal River (Length 960 km)  The Chambal River rises near Mhow-south-west of Indore in Malwa Plateau from the Vindhyan Range-and flows towards the north in a gorge upto the city of Kota.  Below Kota, it turns to the north-east, and after passing Bundi, Sawai-Madhopur and Dholpur, it finally joins the Yamuna about 40 km to the west of Etawah.  The Banas River, rising from the Aravalli Range is its main left bank tributary. RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSIAN  Kali Sind and Parbati originating from the Malwa Plateau are the right bank tributaries of Chambal.  The Chambal River is famous for its extensive ravines which it has carved all along in the Lower Chambal Valley-  The ravines of the Chambal Basin are attributed to a slight uplift during the recent geological times, and they merge into the Yamuna alluvial plain where the landscape is extensively etched out by other tributaries of the Yamuna to the east and west of Chambal.  Multipurpose projects have been constructed across the river_  The main dams across the river are Gandhi Sagar, Rana Pratap Sagar (Rawatbhata} andJawahar Sagar. Chambal Rivines  A maze of ravines, valleys and saw-toothed ridges dissect the plateau.  These ravines are found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh in the lower course of the Chambal River-Infested with dacoits, the ravines are being reclaimed for agriculture, pastures, and social forestry. The Ramganga  This is a comparatively small river which rises in the Kumaun Himalayas.  The river is deflected to the south-west by the Shiwalik, which it cuts through., before emerging at the Ganga Plain in Najibabad,  It joins the River Ganga in Hardoi district opposite to Kannauj. The Sharda  This river rises from the Milam Glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where il is known as the Goriganga.  It is known by various names, such as the Kali, when it turns along the Indo-Nepal border, and the Chauka, before it joins the right bank of Ghagra near Barabanki. The Karnali  The Karnali is known as Kauriala in the Nepal Himalayas and as Ghagra in the Ganga Plain. The Narmada (Length 1300 km, drainage basin 98,800 sq km}  The Narmada River rises from the plateau of Amarkantak of the Maikal Hills of Chhattisgarh.  Moving north-westward, it passes through a complex course near Jabalpur, through some impressive marble gorges, the most spectular being Dhunwadhar Waterfalls (10m high) near Jabalpur.  Moving westward from Jabalpur, it flows through a rift valley between the Vindhyan and the Satpura ranges.  It has rich alluvial deposits in its valley.  Finally, it widens below Bharuch and makes a 27 km wide estuary to enter the Gulf of Khambat (Arabian Sea). Tapi RAJESH NAYAK GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA-MAJID HUSIAN  Having a length of 700 km. and a basin area of 66,900 sq km,  the river Tapi rises from the Satpura Range and flows westward almost parallel to Satpura.  At Khandwa-Burhanpur Gap, the Narmada and Tapi come close to each other.  Below Jalgaon , the river, Like the Narmada, flows in a rift valley but in a much constricted form between the Satpura Range to the north and the Ajanta Range to the south.  Below the city of Surat, it makes an estuary and merges into the Gulf of Khambat. EASTERLY RIVERS OF THE PENINSULAR REGION  There are a number of rivers originating from the Chotanagpur Plateau and merging into the Bay of Bengal, of which the Brahmani is the most important. Subernrekha (length 400 km, basin 28,000 sq km}  rises a little to the southwest of Ranchi where it has a number of waterfalls.  In a general easterly direction, it passes through Jamshedpur and flows to the Bay of Bengal near Balasore. The Brahmani (Length 420 k