Primera Guerra Mundial (1914-1918) PDF

# Primera Guerra Mundial (1914-1918) ## Introducción * During the 17th and 18th centuries the European continent had 4 main protagonists: Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia. * In the mid 19th century, two other powers, Italy and Germany, emerged. * Though the new powers had a fast economic...

# Primera Guerra Mundial (1914-1918) ## Introducción * During the 17th and 18th centuries the European continent had 4 main protagonists: Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia. * In the mid 19th century, two other powers, Italy and Germany, emerged. * Though the new powers had a fast economic and human development, it was not welcomed by the traditional powers, France and Russia, who feared a decrease in their power. * The period between 1885 and 1914 is an era of rivalry between European powers known as the "Armed Peace" due to the colonialist ambitions and the feeling of nationalism. * The increase in militarism in the form of an arms race was a dangerous sign for world peace. * The German army was seen as the leading military force in Europe; this made France resentful. * The Balkan Wars, where Russia did not get the advantages it was hoping for, resulted in an increase in tensions between Russia and Germany. * Bismarck realised that Germany must address Russia; he solidified the alliance with Austria. * The Triple Alliance of Austria, Italy and Germany was signed 1882. * France and Russia counteracted this alliance with a pact in 1892, which was then joined by Great Britain, forming the Triple Entente. ## The detonator for the war * June 28th 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was assassinated in Sarajevo. * The crime was committed by the "Black Hand", an association of Serbian nationalists hostile to Austria's expansion into the Balkans. * Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. * Russia mobilized its troops to support Serbia. * Germany declared war on Russia (01-08-1914) and France ( 03-08-1914). * When Germany invaded Belgium to reach France, Great Britain declared war (04-08-1914). ## The political and territorial situation before the war: The Armed Peace * From the 19th century onwards the European powers engaged in imperialism, which caused tension between them. * This rivalry impacted both the powerful countries and their empires. * It created a period of tension with the threat of war constantly hovering but never erupting, known as the "Armed Peace". ## Imperialism: The territorial expansion ### United Kingdom: The Victorian Era * From 1837 to 1901, Queen Victoria ruled the United Kingdom. * This period of expansion and prosperity marked the UK as the leading power in the world. * The UK had: * An advanced and stable political system of parliamentarism since medieval times which prevented the revolutions that happened in countries such as France. * Pioneered the Industrial Revolution. * A global empire with territories in all continents, thanks to oceanic expansion. ### France: The Second Empire and the Third Republic * The liberal revolutions of 1789, 1830 and 1848 led to the consolidation of power in the hands of one man: Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon. * Napoleon III was first President and then proclaimed Emperor in 1825. * The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 ended with the defeat of the French Empire in Sedan. * This resulted in the end of Napoleon III's reign and the proclamation of the Third Republic. * The Third Republic was marked by territorial expansion and an economic boom spurred by the Second Industrial Revolution, which boosted the iron and chemical industries. * Paris saw significant urban transformation with the construction of grand avenues and boulevards, a symbol of the city's power and meant to facilitate the repression of any potential revolution while turning Paris into the biggest cultural centre in the world. * However, this was a period of political instability with continuous coup attempts orchestrated by anti-republican forces. * The loss of Alsace and Lorraine during the Franco-Prussian War, and the subsequent conflict with Germany, ensured a long-lasting hostility that eventually led to the outbreak of the First World War. ### Germany: The Second Reich * Bismarck united Germany around Kaiser Wilhelm I in 1871, despite being the mastermind of the unification strategy lead by Prussia. * Germany had to integrate the parliamentary systems of all the different unified territories, which created numerous political conflicts. * Bismarck adopted an authoritarian internal policy to counter any potential opposition. * He launched "preventive wars" to crush any challenging force, along with persecuting minorities such as Catholics and Marxists, and actively pushing Germanization within the empire - a policy that included the banning of Polish language. * Germany became a world power in economy and industry thanks to the territories of Alsace and Lorraine, rich in coal and cotton, and the 5,000 million Francs of indemnity received from France after the Franco-Prussian War. * This wealth allowed for the development of the chemical and electric industry, setting the stage for Germany's territorial expansion, a threat that Great Britain perceived with great concern. ## The autocratic systems: The Oriental Empires ### Austro-Hungarian Empire * This empire was multicultural, hosting numerous peoples with various languages, religions and traditions, creating continuous tensions. * The unifying factor was the emperor. * The Austro-Prussian War forced the empire to acknowledge the creation of a Hungarian state in 1867, under the rule of Emperor Franz Joseph, while maintaining unity under the imperial figure. ### Russian Empire * The Tsars ruled Russia with an absolute system based on a feudal system. * The nobility held control while the majority of the population were serfs subjected to their masters. * The agrarian-based economy was an obstacle to the introduction of industry, which further exacerbated the social and political situation. * The Crimean War of 1854 highlighted Russia's backwardness: unable to transport their army due to the lack of railways. * This prompted Tsar Alexander II to initiate reforms: emancipation of the serfs in 1861, industrialization lead by the state, and the development of the Trans-Siberian Railway. * However, the role of the Tsar remained unchanged. * Russia remained an absolute power until the end of the 19th century. * Tsar Alexander II was assassinated, followed by Tsar Alexander III, who took a step backwards in the country's development. * The last Tsar of Russia, Nikolai II, was defeated in 1917 due to the revolution. ### The Ottoman Empire * The empire was in such a weakened state that it lost territories during the wars in the Balkans. * This placed it under the control of European powers. ## The Extra-European Powers ### United States * By 1914, the United States had completed territorial acquisition. * The Second Industrial Revolution transformed the United States into a world power. * The "Monroe Doctrine" of 1823 stated “America is for Americans” and aimed to keep European influence out of the continent. * The Monroe Doctrine was an open challenge to the policies of European powers, particularly the colonial expansion. ### Japan * In 1868, Japan saw the Meiji Restoration which brought about major political changes and a new dynasty. * The Meiji Restoration led to a series of internal reforms, such as the abolishment of aristocratic privileges, the introduction of family names for commoners, and the implementation of a parliamentary system. * This period was also marked by a rapid industrialization process. * Japan then embarked on a path of expansion into Korea and China. ## Militarism * Militarism is an overall social emphasis on military ideals. * The trend towards global armies and navies at the end of the 19th century can be analyzed from two different perspectives: * The technical details of this military buildup: tonnage, numbers of troops, and military expenditure. * The relationship between the army and society. * The growth of armies in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century was the largest in history. * The widespread belief was that a country's size would discourage any potential attack against it, but the reality was that the continuous growth of armies created a sense of urgency and competition between powers. * In 1914, Europe had 200 divisions of troops, which included reservists. * This enormous standing army was fed by a system of conscription mandatory in almost all European powers. * Each power felt threatened by the rapid growth of its rivals' armies and, therefore, was tempted to act first and take advantage of its military superiority. * The Russian army was the largest: 1.3 million soldiers in active service, with a potential to call for 5 million of reservists. ## Industrialization * Some historians argue that economics meant power for the world's powers in 1900. * Others argue that this connection is complex and the factors that define a powerful country are more than that. * One uncontroversial aspect is the impressive growth of industrial production in Europe in the second half of the 19th century. * This industrial revolution started in Britain and by 1870 had spread across Europe. * European industry was more advanced in 1914 compared to 1880. * This boom had a big impact on the definition of the First World War as the first total war in the 20th century. ## Industrial growth and consequences * Industrial production does not cause wars but it presents a set of factors which influence the path to war. * Industrial growth wasn't even across all great powers. * For example, in the US, iron and steel production grew 242% from 1890 to 1913, while in Britain, there was a decrease. * Germany, on the other hand, saw an increase of 329%. The differences between countries created economic tensions. * This economic rivalry also led to a quest for materials and markets that resulted in the neo-mercantilist mindset of the era and the quest for colonies. * By 1900, all of Africa (with a few exceptions) was claimed by European powers so new markets and resources had to be taken by force or diplomacy. * This dynamic was further empowered by the industrial boom. In 1913, German exports reached the same amount as Great Britain's exports; Germany also surpassed Britain in the American market. * Germany sought to protect its interests and secure global power by building a strong navy. This naval rivalry created a pressure to improve industrial power and, therefore, military power. * In 1914, French national production was 200,000 artillery shells daily; while in 1916, Russian factories produced 4.5 million artillery shells, 10 times more than the year before. This connection between economic rivalry and military rivalry is clear. ## The Systems of Alliances * The imperial rivalry, the economic pressure to expand markets, the increasing militarization and nationalistic sentiment created a hostile atmosphere between the powers. * Two blocs emerging from this rivalry ultimately involved the world in the First World War: * The Triple Alliance: This agreement was formed in 1879 by Austria and Germany to counter the threat of Russia. * The Triple Alliance: This agreement was signed in 1882, bringing Italy to the previous alliance to prevent a possible alliance with Russia. * The Franco-Russian Alliance: This agreement was signed in 1894, with Russia seeking protection against Austria and Germany, while France saw the opportunity to form an alliance against Germany. * The Entente Cordiale: This agreement was signed in 1904 between France and Great Britain. * The Anglo-Russian Entente: In 1904, this agreement recognized the spheres of influence in the colonies. * The Triple Entente: This agreement consolidated previous agreements between France, Great Britain and Russia in 1907, solidifying that none of the countries would sign a peace agreement without the others. ## Imperialism/Nationalism * Nations are, essentially, groups of people. * This implies that imperialism and nationalism are both sides of the same coin. * The imperialism of one nation-state aggravates the national sentiment of those dominating it. ## The increase in tension * The imperial tension between European powers reached dangerous levels in the second half of the 19th Century. * The "Scramble for Africa" is defined as the period from 1850 to 1870 where European exploration and explotation of Africa was limited to the coasts, and the competition for acquiring territories on the continent from 1870 onwards. * This competition was very dangerous for all European powers, a point that Bismarck, the German Chancellor, understood very well. * Even though Bismarck disliked overseas colonies, he summoned a conference in Berlin in 1885 to establish rules governing the scramble for Africa. * Bismarck's plan was to prevent disputes among the different European powers and avoid being dragged into an European war due to an African conflict. * However, Bismarck’s actions resulted in the tensions that led to wars in the world. * Bismarck resigned in 1890, and the new Kaiser Wilhelm II sought to expand Germany’s influence in the world stage, which lead to a series of aggressive moves that exposed Germany’s desire for expansion, such as the 1905 conference about Morocco. * This resulted in an increase of tensions between France and Germany and, consequently, strengthened the Anglo-French Entente. * The 1911 Agadir Crisis, when Wilhelm II visited Morocco, which was under French control, resulted in the support of Great Britain to its ally, France. * This crisis further alienated Germany and made it vulnerable to the upcoming conflict. ## Territorial Conflicts * France and Great Britain: These nations sought to control the African continent. * Great Britain aimed to control the territories between Egypt and South Africa, while France’s objective was to control the regions from East to West. * There was a conflict between the two countries in 1898, in Fachoda (now South Sudan). * Both countries reached an agreement. * Great Britain and Russia: They also had conflicts over territories at the north of India, a conflict which ended with a compromise. ## The Moroccan Crisis * During the second half of the 19th Century, colonial ambitions in Africa created a volatile situation. * This tension peaked after Bismarck retired in 1890. * The new Kaiser Wilhelm II felt that Germany was being unfairly excluded from the scramble for Africa. * In 1905, Wilhelm II visited Morocco to assert German dominance and challenge the agreement between France and Britain. * Germany’s intervention was seen as a direct challenge to the Anglo-French entente while it also raised concerns about the expansion of German power. * In 1906, the Conference of Algeciras was called to avoid a war in Europe. * France and Spain were assigned a protectorate over Morocco. * France emerged from the conference strengthened, while Germany was isolated in the eyes of the international community. * In 1911, the Agadir Crisis unfolded following a French intervention in Morocco, a move that Germany interpreted as a breach of the Algeciras agreement. * Germany sent a warship to the port of Agadir, trying to gain leverage in the negotiations and secure a piece of Cameroun for the liberty of action in Morocco. * In 1911, France granted Germany a piece of Cameroun, securing the French protectorate over Morocco. * While the crisis seemed to weaken the Entente Cordiale, it was actually a testament to its force. ## The conflict between Russia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire: The Eastern Question * The "Eastern Question" addressed the situation in the occupied territories of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. * The decline of Ottoman power gave rise to the ambition of both Russia and Austria-Hungary for control of the region. * For Austria-Hungary, it was crucial to expand to the south due to Serbia’s hostile position, which hampered the Austrian trade as a result of the railway to Salonica. * For Russia, it was important to protect Serbian people, as Slavs, and gain access to the Mediterranean. * From 1908 to 1913, a series of crises in the Balkans tested the balance of power in Europe. * In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina; this resulted in a protest by Serbia, which sought to unite all Slavs in the south of Europe. * Russia, Great Britain and France did not offer support to Serbia, which led to a compromise. * In 1912, Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria, supported by Russia, formed the Balkan League to defeat the Ottoman Empire. * The League won, and the independence of Albania was recognized by the Ottomans, while the remaining territories were to be divided between the victorious powers. * The division of the Ottoman territories resulted in a new conflict between Serbia and Bulgaria in 1913. * Serbia won, and Russia gained more influence in the Balkans, while the influence of Germany and Austria-Hungary were damaged. This event set the scene for the next, and decisive, crisis. ## The Outbreak of the War: The Causes in the Short Term ### The July Crisis * The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the spark for the First World War. * However, the assassination itself was not a decisive factor; the mismanagement of the crisis in the context of previous tensions is what triggered the war. * During the period between 1881 and 1914, eight rulers were assassinated. * France and Austria-Hungary were not prepared to handle the crisis, and this lead to four years of devastation. * The "Black Hand", a Serbian terrorist group, was supported by the Serbian army, though not by the government. * Austrian authorities, and particularly the Chief of General Staff, Conrad von Hötzendorff, and the Chancellor, Leopold von Berchtold, saw an opportunity to crush Serbian nationalism. * With Germany's unconditional support to an Austro-Hungarian war against Serbia, they sent an ultimatum with impossible conditions regarding the assassination and Serbia’s sovereignty. * Russia, seeing the ultimatum as a direct threat to its sovereignty, responded by partially mobilizing its forces, triggering what Wilhelm II saw as a threat, prompting a full mobilization. * The German plan to defeat France through Belgium, and, therefore, to avoid a war against Russia, depended on a swift mobilization to avoid resistance from Russia. * Wilhelm II demanded that Russia ceased military operations, but Russia did not respond. * Germany issued a full mobilization order, and, accordingly, the German army moved to attack France through Belgium. * The British government, under Edward Grey, sought to remain neutral until the last minute. * This gave no opportunity for Germany to reconsider its decision. * August 3rd, 1914, the German army crossed the border into Belgium, a violation of the neutrality agreement, which triggered Great Britain's entry into the war. ## The War Plans * The mobilization of millions of soldiers across Europe required a high level of coordination. * This process was fueled and greatly sped up by the railway system, which the German government took control of in 1880. * The large movement of troops would take 2 weeks to reach their positions before they could engage in any battle. ### The Schlieffen Plan * This was the most famous war plan. * It was developed by Alfred von Schlieffen, Chief of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1905. * Schlieffen's goal was to defeat both France and Russia. * The plan was to concentrate 7 armies against France, who were to be conquered in 41 days, while the other armies would resist the Russian invasion. * This plan required a rapid German mobilization to take advantage of the delayed Russian mobilization and avoid being attacked in two fronts. * It was a preemptive attack on France. ### The Plan XVII * This was the French plan for a response to the German attack. * The plan assumed that the German invasion would be concentrated in the southeast of France. * Their troops were to be mobilized toward the east to regain Alsace and Lorraine. * The French army, compared to the German, was more centralized, and counted on a swift offensive with a coordinated assault from the British. ## The Reasons for War ### The Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war * In July 1914, the Austro-Hungarian Imperial Council issued an ultimatum to Serbia. * Austria-Hungary considered Serbia a threat to its existence, particularly due to the growing nationalism in the region. * The ultimatum was designed to be rejected. * It included a demand for Austria-Hungary to control Serbia’s internal police force, which was seen as a threat to Serbian sovereignty. * The answer was that Austria would see Serbia’s rejection as a justified reason to start a preventative war. * The Austro-Hungarian army was ready for a swift and decisive attack to secure the integrity of the empire, which was deemed as a potential threat. * They relied on the alliance with Germany to avoid being dragged into a wider war. * Austria-Hungary's actions were fueled by a combination of pressure from the Chief of General Staff, Conrad von Hötzendorff, who openly advocated for a war, and the Chancellor, Count Leopold von Berchtold, who saw war as the solution to the growing Serbian threat. ### The Austro-Hungarian declaration of war was motivated by: * The need to preserve the Austro-Hungarian Empire: They saw numerous threats to their existence. * Dependence on the Triple Alliance: They relied on Germany’s support, especially for the alliance with Austria-Hungary. * Confidence in a swift victory: The Austro-Hungarian leaders believed that a decisive victory would be swift. * The influence of the military power and planning: The build-up of the Austro-Hungarian military power played a significant role in the decision to declare war. * The need to prevent Serbian nationalism: They wanted to stop the spread of Serbian nationalism and saw it as a potential threat. * Willingness to risk: They felt that the political and military advisers supported a risky move to secure their existence. * Austria’s steps toward war were based on a gamble based on the assessment of the threat against their existence, and on the advice of their military and political advisors. ### The Russian Empire: The mobilization of its troops * Russia, after the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), experienced an economic boom and a significant change in political structure and military power. * The international community still considered Russia a constant threat. * Russia had strong ties to the Slavic territories in the Balkans, in particular Serbia, and feared any threat to its influence in the region. * The alliance with France and the rivalry with Germany influenced Russia’s decision. * The mobilization of Russian troops was seen as an act of demonstration and a way to show that Russia would defend the interests. * For Russia, mobilization was a way to protect its interests and counter the danger of potential threats. ### The German Empire: Support for Austria * There is a constant debate about the role of Germany in the First World War: * The historian Fritz Fischer argued that Germany was responsible for the war, and that the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was used as an excuse to fulfill Germany’s pre-war plans. * Fischer also suggested that Germany was encouraging Austria’s war plans to provoke a crisis and address the potential “encirclement” by Russia and France. * Fischer also highlighted the continuity between German expansionism in the first and second World Wars. * The historian Gerhard Ritter, on the other hand, argued that Germany’s motivation was to protect Austria and prevent Russia’s domination of the Balkans. * Ritter believed that Germany was not pursuing a long-term plan and reacted to the crisis. * Both historians disagree on whether Germany had a long-term plan of expansion but the evidence points to Bethmann-Hollweg’s support to Austria. * Ritter argues that Germany underestimated the British response and the likelihood of a global war, while assuming that the support for Austria would not lead to a full-scale war. * Germany was not in a state of outright war. Its leaders tried to solve the crisis and avoid a major conflict. * However, factors such as Germany’s vulnerabilities, alliance, the lack of a negotiated solution, and its colonial ambitions, as well as the threat of a French peace agreement, all influenced the final decision. ## The French Republic: the mobilization of its forces * The Third Republic was established in 1870 following the defeat of the Franco-Prussian war. * France lost Alsace and Lorraine and was forced to pay an indemnity to Germany. * This fueled nationalistic sentiment and a desire for revenge. * France formed an alliance with Russia and improved relations with Great Britain. * Its war plan, Plan XVII, focused on rapid decisive attacks on Germany. * There was a clear sense of support amongst the French population. * The French believed that the German actions in the previous years made a peaceful solution impossible. * The Moroccan crisis, which highlighted the aggression from Germany, further strengthened the relations of France with Great Britain and Russia. * France counted on the alliance and a coordinated effort to combat Germany against Russia. * France saw the opportunity to regain Alsace and Lorraine. * France’s confidence in its war plan, Plan XVII, made it a reasonable risk to engage in a conflict. ## The British Empire: the mobilization of its forces * Britain, a powerful empire controlling global territories, had a pragmatic approach to international conflicts. * After the 19th Century, there was a shift in perspective. * Germany’s ambition, as highlighted by the Kaiser’s rhetoric, the expansion of German naval power, the conflicts in South Africa and Morocco, and the presence of the German Navy in the Atlantic Coast of Morocco, were a direct threat to Britain’s interests. * British public opinion was concerned about the expansion of German economic influence and power. * However, there was no consensus on whether Britain would take part in a war until the German invasion of Belgium, which, according to the neutrality agreement, triggered Britain’s intervention. ## The War: Technologies & Conflicts * The technology in the First World War was an unprecedented force. * Combatants were surprised by the rate of technological advancement. * The war was also marked by the continuous growth of opposing forces, which created challenges in terms of mobilization and logistics. ### Aircraft * The early models of aircraft were nothing more than a light frame covered in cloth and equipped with an engine, fuel tank, and a seat for the pilot. * The technological advancements were rapid, and soon aircraft had weapons. * Aerial warfare took the form of reconnaissance missions, combat against enemy aircraft as well as ground attacks, artillery support, and bombing. * The introduction of synchronization gear allowed for the use of machine guns through the propeller and provided accurate machine gun fire. * The Fokker triplane, though difficult to control, offered greater maneuverability than biplanes. * Bombers evolved to carry a heavier payload of bombs, which could reach further. * Bombing targets became more strategic, such as factories and railways, and they began to attack transport ships and convoys. * Because of their altitude, zeppelins provided a good advantage against enemy aircraft at the beginning of the war. * However, the development of new fighter planes and incendiary bombs ended the zeppelin threat. ### Communication * Communication systems were highly vulnerable. * In the era of small armies, verbal messages delivered by foot soldiers or on horseback were the main way of communication. * The scale of the armies and the complex battlefields meant that these methods were not effective. * The telephone was an option, but wires were easily cut during battle. * Wireless communication equipment was large, unreliable, and prone to interception. * Some methods were revived: * Messenger runners: Soldiers were assigned to deliver messages across trench networks, a task that was dangerous and required a deep understanding of the system. * Semaphore flags: They offered an efficient way to deliver messages, but only in good weather conditions. * Heliographs and Lamps: They were used during the day and night respectively, limiting their usefulness due to their reliance on line of sight. * Pigeons: They were used to send messages across long distances; the British army used 22,000 pigeons at any given time, and about 2% did not return. * Machine guns: Hiram Maxim was a major American innovator who invented the first automatic machine gun. It used the force of the shot to feed another round and reach a rate of fire of 600 rounds per minute. * Machine guns, a major development of the Industrial Revolution, became a defining factor in the battlefield. They were crucial in trench warfare, and, although they were large and needed a team to operate them, they could fire up to 1,200 rounds per minute by the end of the First World War. * Smaller machine guns were developed and could be used on aircraft and during assaults. * Big Bertha: This was one of the largest cannons of the war. It fired a 12-kilometer range. ### Tanks * Introduced by the British in the First World War, the tank was a major breakthrough. * It was seen as a safe haven for soldiers advancing under enemy fire. * Despite the German lack of interest in the technology, France produced more than 4,000 tanks by 1918 and Britain produced 2,600. * Tanks had a key impact on the outcome of the Second World War. ### Submarines * The submarine was a key weapon due to its potential to sink enemy merchant ships and ships of the line with no direct confrontation. * Germany was particularly drawn to the submarine because it offered them a more cost-effective and powerful weapon against the Royal Navy. * Germany started the war with 30 submarines. * Submarines, initially, only carried one torpedo tube. * Later, models were developed with multiple tubes and torpedoes. * However, submarines raised ethical concerns: * They could not rescue survivors. * They were supposed to provide a warning to the targeted ship before attacking it. * German unrestricted submarine warfare meant that any ship heading for an enemy port would be attacked. * Although a devastating threat, the Allies employed a counter-strategy of using convoys, depth charges, and sonar to combat the submarine threat. ## Propaganda * All belligerents used propaganda extensively during the war. * The aim of propaganda was to influence public opinion and generate support for the war effort. * Propaganda used various means to achieve its goals, such as: * Involving the population: The use of patriotic appeals to motivate the population to participate in the war effort. * Using propaganda’s definition: This was the use of manipulated messages to influence public opinion. * The "hypodermic needle" model of propaganda: This model assumes that messages, like a direct injection, are delivered into a receptive audience. * Adapting propaganda: The need to adjust the message to the audience and time. * The aims for propaganda: Recruiting soldiers, bolstering morale, targeting the enemy, and swaying neutral countries. * Propaganda tools: The strategic use of posters as a powerful persuasive tool. * Focusing on recruitment: Posters were key in recruiting soldiers. ## The Development of the War * July 1914 saw the diminishing prospects for peace. * Germany, under Kaiser Wilhelm II, declared war on Russia. * The leaders believed that the war was beyond their control and an unavoidable consequence, but in reality, they were reacting rather than acting. * The domino effect of alliances and national interests put the European continent on a warpath. * As all countries mobilized their forces, the role of the railways proved crucial at first. * However, the sheer number of troops and supplies were quickly exceeding the railway capacity and the rest of the journey was made on foot. ### The Belgian Campaign: The Schlieffen Plan * The plan called for the German army to quickly move through neutral Belgium into Paris. * The Belgians, despite having a smaller army, had invested in a strong system of fortifications to defend their borders. * The Belgian army was deployed in the Liege region, which was highly fortified and held 12 fortresses. * The Second Army of Germany, with 300,000 soldiers, attacked. * The initial siege of the fortresses was successful due to zeppelin bombings. * To conquer the remaining fortresses, the Germans had to use large siege guns, including the “Big Bertha”, which could fire a 770-kilogram shell for 12 kilometers. * After 11 days, the German army captured the fortresses, leaving the rest of Belgium open for their conquest. ### The Battle of the Frontiers * The French Army went on the offensive. * They aimed to regain Alsace and Lorraine. * However, the French offensive was not coordinated and there were gaps between their troops which were actively exploited by the Germans, who mounted a counteroffensive. * The French offense came to a halt by August 24th. ## The Battle of the Marne * This battle, fought in the period between September 5th and 12th, 1914, was a major defeat for France. * The French sustained 200,000 casualties. * The German offensive, on the other hand, was proving successful and their forces were advancing through Belgium. * This led to the Great Retreat of British forces. * While the initial impression was that the German conquest was successful, the defense managed to consolidate itself. * The Anglo-French army retreated to Paris, shortening supply lines. * The German army was forced to stretch its supply lines, leading to more casualties in the process. * This dynamic resulted in the “fading power of the offense”. * The defense offered by the Belgian region had given the French army time to organize a counteroffensive. ### The Battle of the Marne * The French General Gallieni prepared for the attack on Paris. * The German forces were moving through the right flank instead of around Paris, which created an opening for the French Sixth Army. * The French General Joffre decided to launch a counteroffensive and ordered the Sixth Army to take advantage of the German weaknesses. * The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) joined the French offensive and further stretched the German defense. * The Germans were forced to retreat. * The counteroffensive marked the end of the Schlieffen Plan. * The German General von Kluck, who was in charge of the First Army, was forced to retreat to avoid being flanked. * The German Chief of Staff, Helmuth von Moltke, was late to react and his cautiousness led to the German retreat. ## The Race to the Sea * The retreat of the German First and Second Armies led to trench warfare in the Western Front. * The aim of the German army was to outmaneuver the enemy and encircle them, requiring large flanking movements. * The British and French armies acted to counter this movement, extending the front line from the Alps to the Channel. * Trench warfare was a brutal new reality and, therefore, an unequal battlefield. ### The Trench Warfare * The Germans had the advantage of defending their positions, which had been secured in 1914. * The trenches were a static system, forcing the combatants to adopt new tactics. * Defensive technology dominated, creating a clear advantage for the defensive side. * Defensive technology included trenches, barbed wire, mines, machine guns, and flamethrowers. * Offensive tactics required innovative technology to break through the static trenches. * The first example of offensive technology employed during the war was poison gas. ### The Second Battle of Ypres * This battle was fought in April 1915. * The German army deployed 170 tons of chlorine gas against the allied forces. * The gas attack caught the Allied forces by surprise, resulting in 10,000 casualties. * This attack allowed the German army to gain a significant ground. * The Canadian forces were able to resist a second attack with improvised gas masks. * The battle resulted in 70,000 allied casualties and 39,000 German casualties. ### The Battle of Verdun * This battle was fought from February to October 1916. * The German army sought to break the stalemate in the Western Front. * The German Chief of Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, decided to attack the French army north of Verdun, believing that they would resist the attack and bleed to death: “to bleed France white.” * The Germans deployed 8 divisions, 1,200 artillery guns, and over 2.5 million rounds of ammunition. * The French General Pétain defended the city. * The German offensive was a combination of heavy artillery bombardment and an infantry assault. * While the artillery bombardment was successful, the French were prepared for the attack. * The French General Pétain adopted the strategy of “active defence”. * This meant that the French forces would meet the attacking German troops as aggressively as possible, only retreating to launch counteroffensives. * The German troops experienced difficulties moving their heavy weaponry through the destroyed landscapes. * The battle resulted in a stalemate, but the casualties on both sides were significant. * The French losses approximated 350,