Chapter Two: The First World War PDF

# Chapter Two: The First World War ## I. Causes of the First World War Canadian troops served in the First World War as part of the British Empire and played an important role in the Allied victory. Canadians gained worldwide respect on the battlefields of Europe for their bravery and skill. Meanw...

# Chapter Two: The First World War ## I. Causes of the First World War Canadian troops served in the First World War as part of the British Empire and played an important role in the Allied victory. Canadians gained worldwide respect on the battlefields of Europe for their bravery and skill. Meanwhile, the war on the home front led to long-term changes to the Canadian economy and society. Although the First World War marked an important step towards Canada's independence from Britain, it served to create further tensions between French and English Canadians. As this unit progresses, you will see how many considered the First World War to be inevitable. A number of forces were at play that simply led the nations of Europe down the path to war. The following concepts represent the underlying or background causes of the First World War. Although these issues by themselves may not have led to war, in combination, the result was catastrophic. ### A. Concept of War 1. At the beginning of the century, it was believed that war offered the possibility of a glorious adventure. The people of 1914 knew little of how a modern war, after industrialization, would work - to them war was legendary, romantic, heroic. They imagined cavalry attacks, glittering uniforms, and victory marches - parades and music. Young men believed that they could not afford to miss out on the most wonderful and exciting experience of their lives. Today many people cringe at the very mention of the word "war". ### B. Imperialism 1. Imperialism can be defined as extending the rule of authority of one country over other countries or territories. In this case, imperialism involved forming and maintaining an empire through the establishment of colonies or spheres of influence. 2. Imperialism resulted from industrialization because countries needed raw materials to supply their factories, and new markets in which to sell their goods. The industrial plants of Europe were producing more goods than could be consumed at home, and as a result of this, countries sought to obtain colonies where they could sell their goods. 3. Countries would often come into conflict over competition for colonies - particularly in Africa and South-East Asia. These conflicts in faraway places often threatened to bring war between European countries, even within Europe itself. ### C. Empires * **Great Britain** * The phrase "the sun never set on the British Empire" clearly described the vast area of land occupied by Britain - British strategic military and naval bases encircled the globe. The British Empire was the envy of other aspiring colonial powers, as Britain became tremendously wealthy by its empire. * **France** * France had large many colonies in the Western Hemisphere and Central Africa. Historically, France had repeatedly got itself into trouble with its rather large empire. At the turn of the century Germany was France’s principal rival in Europe and Germany began to target the French Empire. France feared with some justification that Germany wanted to take over its colonies. * **Belgium, Holland, Spain, Portugal, and Italy** * These countries managed to secure some colonies as well. Belgium and Holland had some rather important colonies given that they were such small players on the European scene. Spain and Portugal had largely squandered their empires in the early part of the nineteenth century. * **Russia** * Russia promoted Pan-Slavism. This idea planned to unite the Slavic peoples (people of the "Slavic" ethnic background) of the Balkans (an area of south eastern Europe). Russia wanted to play the "big brother" role in encouraging Slav nationalism. Its motives for this were somewhat selfish. Russia desperately wanted to control a warm water port that would be ice free all year. Given its severe climate, most of Russia's ports were frozen during the winter. If Russia could dominate the Balkans, it could also achieve the 200-year-old goal of achieving that warm water port. * **Austria-Hungary** * Not only did Russia hope to dominate the Balkans, but so did Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary's imperial programme did not focus on overseas colonies but upon territory next door to its own. Austria-Hungary wanted to dominate the Balkans because the ever-increasing Slav nationalism in that region threatened its very existence. This ramshackle empire was threatened by Pan-Slavism because in its own country there were many ethnic groups that were linked to the same ethnic groups in the rest of the Balkans. After these groups began to desire the formation of their own independent states in the late nineteenth century, they threatened to cause the disintegration of Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary believed that its only chance for survival was to dominate the ethnic groups to the South (especially the aggressive Serbs). For this reason, Austria-Hungary stood squarely in the path of Russian aggressiveness in the region. It is useful to note, even at this early stage, that the First World War was sparked by the events in the Balkans. * **Germany** * While Germany had colonies in Southwest and East Africa, its colonies were not as strategically situated, nor as economically desirable as were Britain's. In fact, in 1914, the German colonies were still a negative drain on the German economy. German leaders demanded that Germany acquire more colonies, which would be sources of raw materials for expanding German industries. This demand brought Germany into conflict with other European powers, particularly Britain and France. Shortly after the turn of the century, Germany made a rather dangerous decision regarding the need for an empire. Germany decided that it could never be a true great power unless it extended its imperial holdings (i.e., acquire more colonies). Its pursuit of this goal changed many of the relationships between other countries that had reason to fear German expansion. ### D. Militarism 1. Militarism can be defined as the policy of making a country's armed forces very strong, and allowing a political situation in which military interests dominate government policy. In Germany, Britain, France, Russia, & Italy, all men between the ages of 18 and 60 were fully trained and prepared for army service at any time. Militarism is also a state of mind which accepts war as a respectable way of advancing a country's interests and resolving disputes. This attitude made the conflicts between European nations about colonies and boundaries ever so much more dangerous. 2. In the early 1900's, the British Navy was the largest in the world - a necessity in order to protect its huge empire. The official British policy regarding the navy was called the Two-Power Standard. This policy meant that the British navy must at all times be equal or better than any two other navies combined. Because Germany wanted to be a major power of Europe, it needed to build a strong empire as well. However, in order to do so, it would require a large navy. This element brought Germany into direct conflict with Britain. 3. When Germany began to build up its navy, Britain saw this as a threat to its position of power. This led Britain and Germany into an arms race, which is competition to see who could build become the best equipped militarily. The this case the focus was naval power. The launching of the Dreadnought class of warship early in the twentieth century was the best example of this naval arms race. 4. Germany also competed with France and Russia to build the largest army. The German army was not the largest in Europe, but was easily the best in areas such as training, equipment, medical supplies, and discipline. These naval and arms races greatly increased tension, and the possibility of war in Europe. ### E. Nationalism 1. There Are Essentially Two Types of Nationalism: * **The first** can be defined as a strong feeling of patriotism and pride for one's country, and/or the desire of a people to preserve its own language, religion and traditions. In other words, this type of nationalism could be called "nation-statism" because it is connected to an existing state. By 1914, the feelings of nationalism among European countries were extreme. * **The second type** of nationalism exists within an ethnic group that does not have its own country. These groups desire to be liberated from a dominant ethnic group, different than themselves. This type is important to the history of Europe in the years preceding the First World War, because it was this type of nationalism that actually led to the beginning of war in the Balkans, and more particularly, in Austria-Hungary. 2. Most European countries valued national interests over anything else. Immediately preceding the First World War, European countries wanted to assert themselves and their national identities. They were prepared to go to war to promote the interests of their homelands. 3. Nationalism was especially intense in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary had taken over Bosnia, an area where many different ethnic groups lived. There were 11 Slav groups in Austria-Hungary that were nationalistic and wanted independence. When Austria-Hungary took over Bosnia, the Serbs in Bosnia were upset, but so was Serbia itself. Serbia had ambitions to add Bosnia to its country. Russia threatened war to protect the Slav groups in Serbia and Bosnia, but backed down because Britain and France (its allies) did not support this. The Slav groups in Bosnia greatly resented being under Austrian control. A number of rebellions took place within the Austrian Empire as various groups tried to break free of Austrian rule. The area was becoming the "Powder Keg of Europe." In fact, German leader Otto von Bismarck stated many years earlier that the next war would start over "some damn fool thing in the Balkans." . Some Bosnian Serbs were determined to free Bosnia from Austria-Hungary, so they formed the Black Hand (a terrorist organization that worked to achieve its goals by violent action). They threatened to kill the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand if he entered Bosnia. However, the goals of the Black Hand were much broader than freeing Bosnia. Their goals were to liberate all the ethnic groups of Slav-descent in Austria-Hungary and form what they called "Greater Serbia," later known as Yugoslavia. ### F. Alliances 1. Alliances can be defined as a close association of nations for the achievement of common objectives, or a group of countries united for the purpose of joint military protection. Along with their own military preparedness, the formation of alliances was the principal method for nations to ensure their security in the years leading up to the First World War. 2. Colonial rivalries in Europe led each country to seek friends (defensive alliances) for their protection. By the early 1900s, two alliances were established: * **The Triple Alliance** (also known as the Central Powers) * The Triple Alliance consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, who all agreed to support each other if attacked. * **The Triple Entente** (also known as the Allied Powers) * Through a less formal group of arrangements, France, Russia, and Britain loosely agreed to support each other if attacked. However, at no time, did these three countries sit down and sign a formal agreement in which they promised to support each other if attacked. ### G. Countdown to War 1. **Assassination** * On June 28, 1914, Archduke Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, was killed by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the "Black Hand" while visiting Bosnia (within the Austro-Hungarian empire). 2. **Blank Cheque** * Austria-Hungary consulted with Germany to discuss how to deal with the crisis. Germany gave Austria-Hungary the famous Blank Cheque. The Blank Cheque meant that Germany would support Austria-Hungary, even if that meant going to war. Germany felt certain that Britain would remain neutral if war broke out. 3. **Austria-Hungary Prepared for War** * With the support of Germany, Austria-Hungary began to prepare for war against Serbia. 4. **The Ultimatum** * Because the "Black Hand" was a Serbian terrorist organization, the Austrians sent Serbia an ultimatum - hand over your terrorists or face war. (An ultimatum is a threat which states that one must meet certain conditions or face dire consequences). 5. **Serbia's Reply** * Although Serbia agreed to most of the terms of the ultimatum, it asked for clarification on a few points. Austria-Hungary interpreted this response to be a rejection, as it was looking for an excuse to go to war. 6. **On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary Declared War on Serbia** 7. **Russia's Mobilization** * Russia, under Tsar Nicholas II, believed that this declaration of war was part of a German plot to occupy the Balkans (remember that Russia was looking for access to a warm water port). Russia gave Serbia its own version of a blank cheque and began to mobilize its army against Austria-Hungary. 8. **Germany Declared War on Russia** * Germany, under Kaiser Wilhelm II, demanded that Russia demobilize. When this didn't happen, Germany supported Austria by mobilizing its army and declaring war on Russia. 9. **France Supported Russia** * Because France was in alliance with Russia, it told Russia that it would declare war. 10. **Germany Declared War on France** * Germany felt threatened by Russia and France, so it ordered them to stop mobilizing. When they refused, Germany declared war on France. 11. **Schlieffen Plan** * Germany planned to attack France through the neutral country of Belgium, using what was known as the Schlieffen Plan. The Schlieffen Plan was designed to avoid a two-front war. If a two-front war occurred, it would mean that Germany would have to fight France on one side, and Russia on the other - both at the same time. According to the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans planned to use most of their army to defeat France in the West within six weeks, at which time they would transfer most of those forces to the East to defeat Russia. Schlieffen assumed that Russia would take six weeks to get ready for war. Alfred Von Schlieffen (who developed the plan) also assumed that Britain would remain neutral, and that Germany could pass through the neutral territory of Belgium on the way to France - Von Schlieffen was completely mistaken. Belgian neutrality was guaranteed by Britain. In other words, if a country tried to enter Belgium for the purposes of war, Britain would take action to stop it. 12. **Britain Declared War on Germany** * Because Britain had agreed to protect the neutrality of Belgium, it declared war on Germany when Germany invaded Belgium. The First World War had begun. ### H. Review of Motives * **Germany** * Germany believed that it could win a war now, but maybe not later. * **Austria-Hungary** * Austria-Hungary was concerned with the survival of its multi-ethnic state, and wanted to solve the Pan-Slav problem once and for all. Remember that the Pan-Slav problem was that Austria-Hungary dominated the Slav people who lived in Austria-Hungary, but the Slav people wanted to be united with other Slav groups in Russia to form their own country. * **Russia** * Russia's motives were mostly economic - it badly wanted access to an all-weather port. * **France** * France believed that loyalty to the alliance system was the only way to remain a major power. * **Britain** * Britain believed in the independence of sovereign states (meaning independent states in which the people govern themselves, i.e. no foreign ruler), and also in curbing the ever-increasing strength of Germany. ## II. Canada Goes to War Canada automatically entered the war as part of the British Empire. When Britain declared war, Canada was at war. In the late nineteenth century, Canada had already sent military support to the British in a war in South Africa known as the Boer War. ### A. Support Canadian support for going to war in Europe was widespread. Prime Minister Robert Borden and his cabinet decided to support Britain wholeheartedly. Canada offered Britain a force of 25,000 men trained, equipped, and paid for by the Canadian government. Canada actually had only 3,000 regular army soldiers, and two navy cruisers, but it also had over 60,000 militia (citizen soldiers trained for emergencies). In 1914, Newfoundland was not yet part of Canada. While some Newfoundlanders joined Canadian regiments, most became members of the Newfoundland Regiment. (At this time, Newfoundland was not a part of Canada.) To supplement existing Canadian forces, Colonel Hughes sent out a call for volunteers to join for $1 a day. Over 10,000 Canadians volunteered. Hundreds of women also joined as nurses and ambulance drivers to serve overseas. ### B. Why Did They Join? * **Sense of Patriotism** * Canadians felt proud to fight for their country. In English-speaking Canada, strong sentimental ties to Great Britain also contributed to this sense of patriotism, as recent immigrants from Britain were the first to volunteer. As the war developed Canadian Prime Minister Robert Borden promised a total of 500,000 men in support of the British, which contributed to the Canadian sense of duty. Although some regions like the Prairies contributed more than others, all of Canada supported the war in the first several years. * **Feelings of Excitement and Adventure** * Given the pre-First World War attitudes about war in general, many young men still viewed war as the "great adventure," and enlisted for the sense of excitement they thought the war would bring. ### C. Training the Troops Sir Sam Hughes was Canada's Minister of Militia and Defence at the beginning of the war. Hughes set up a training camp for over 30,000 men at Valcartier, Quebec. Troops were issued the Ross Rifle (manufactured in Canada), which was good for sharp shooting, but poor in trench warfare (more on this later). By October 1914, Canadian troops were on their way across the Atlantic, and by February, Canadian troops were on their way to the front lines in France. ## III. War in Europe Canadians served overseas as part of the overall Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF). On the Western Front as 1915, and eventually four Canadian divisions were formed into the Canadian Corps, which fought alongside British forces. Julian Byng, a British general, originally commanded the entire Corps. In 1917, Canadian Lieutenant-General Arthur Currie became commander of the Corps. This was the first time that the British gave up command to a Canadian. Both Byng and Currie ensured that the Canadian troops would fight as one unit, rather than being dispersed throughout the British units. The creation of the Canadian Corps not only strengthened the unity of Canadian soldiers fighting in Europe, but also gave Canadians at home a sense of pride. ### A. Stalemate 1. When Germany moved into Belgium (according to the Schlieffen Plan), it encountered strong resistance, but nevertheless, soon Germany was invading France. 2. Germany threw all of its forces against the French forces east of Paris, but was stopped in the Battle of the Marne. Because Germany was denied a quick victory in the West, a two-front war became a reality. 3. Germany could not advance, and the British and French could not drive the Germans back. As a result, both sides dug trenches (ditches) to protect their troops. They had reached a stalemate. In most areas of the Western Front, the lines of trenches moved very little over the next three years. ### B. Trench Warfare 1. Because the airplane was still primitive, and the tank had not yet been developed at the start of the war, trench warfare was a standard war tactic. The trenches were usually about 400 metres apart. These trenches offered protection against enemy fire, yet soldiers remained vulnerable to artillery (bomb) attacks. While some trenches were quite elaborate, others were nothing more than a muddy ditch often filled with rotting victims of the war. Rats, lice and various fungal diseases were common. 2. Between the trenches there was a narrow strip called "no man's land." Whenever soldiers detected movement in enemy territory, they fired rifles and machine guns across no man's land. The Canadian-issued Ross rifle proved to be troublesome in trench warfare, as it jammed easily in the dirt and mud. 3. When the officers ordered an advance, this meant "going over the top" of the trench and across no man's land, fully exposed to enemy fire. Virtually nobody anticipated the tremendous defensive capabilities of the machine gun at the beginning of the war. Machine guns could fire about 500 rounds per minute. As the war progressed, this moved up to about 1,000 rounds per minute. Each side had hundreds of these guns in defensive positions, thus making any entry into no man's land futile. In fact, entering no man's land almost always meant certain death. Canadian troops would write home to friends and family that machine guns "mowed down the soldiers like wheat before the cutter.” The implementation of the machine gun was the reason why the Western Front resulted in a three-year-long stalemate. 4. Occasionally, the troops managed to capture the enemy's front line (there were two lines of trenches). However, the enemy then merely moved back to their reserve trenches. Barbed wire was stretched across the new patch of no man's land. This tactic resulted in a gain or loss of only a few metres of land. Often thousands of soldiers were killed in the process. 5. Soldiers fought, ate and slept in the trenches. They froze in the snow and sleet, and sometimes the trenches were filled waist-deep with icy water. Entire divisions were killed by epidemics of fever and the flu because men could go weeks and months without washing. Sometimes men came down with trench foot, which caused their feet to swell to three times their normal size. The following describes what life was like in the trenches: *"Try to sleep with a belt full of ammunition around you, your rifle bolt biting into your ribs, entrenching tool handle sticking into the small of your back, with a tin hat for a pillow; and feeling very damp and cold, with cooties (lice and other parasites) boring for oil in your arm pits, and the air foul from the stench of grimy human bodies being whiffed into your nostrils." Note from an unknown soldier.* ### C. The Changing Face of War 1. **New Types of Fighting** * **Battles of Attrition** (grinding down) * As a result of trench warfare, it was almost impossible for one side to gain the upper hand - these came to be called Battles of Attrition. Traditionally, battles consisted of frontal attacks in which one army overwhelmed the other and victory was declared. Instead of decisive victories in the first three years of this war, each side simply tried to grind the other side down in order to outlast them. The main reason that the First World War became a series of battles of attrition is that the defensive weapons were superior to the weapons used for attack. The machine gun, firing hundreds of rounds (bullets) per minute, made frontal attacks suicidal. * **Total War** * In total war all of the resources of a nation are organized for one purpose - to win the war. In most wars previous to the twentieth century, the conflict at the battle front had little impact on life on the home front. The nature of warfare in the twentieth century drastically changed the relationship between the battle front and the home front. Some would argue that the home front was now as important as the front where armies faced one another. Do not mistake the home front for another battle front. It was not. The home front was responsible for production, enlisting troops, finance and organization. Because a nation's ability to produce and pay for the goods required for such a massive war, the home front became as important as the battle front. * Because modern warfare required such a massive volume of materials and supplies, the ability of a nation to produce and deliver the goods necessary for the troops to be successful became a vital factor in determining who would win the war. Most countries introduced conscription (compulsory military service) when the casualty lists grew to previously unheard of levels. Industries were retooled to mass produce war materials instead of domestic or consumer goods. War bonds (war bonds were essentially a method of citizens loaning money to their government) were sold to the public appealing to their patriotism, and income tax was introduced for the first time. In this frenzy to produce the necessary war goods, the engineer, the businessman and the math professor at university became as important as the troops in the trenches. Additionally, women took non-traditional jobs to fill the places vacated by men as they enlisted or were conscripted. Even children were used to collect scrap metal to speed up the process of production. * The term "total war" is a twentieth century invention. To understand this concept in one sense is simple - one merely has to take the word "total" very literally. 2. **The Impact of Technology on the Battlefield** * **Tanks** * Tanks were used for the first time in warfare in the Battle of the Somme. Tanks were developed in order to solve the problems of trench warfare. Compared to infantry, tanks could attack across no man's land in relative safety because they were immune to machine gun fire and could roll over barbed wire. At first, these tanks had little impact because they were so clumsy. However, many military historians agree that by 1918, the tank was a major reason for the Allied victory. * **Poison Gas** * Poison gas was used for the first time in warfare in the Battle of Ypres. German troops pushed hoses into no man's land and pumped out poisonous chlorine gas towards the Canadian and French lines. Exposure to chlorine gas caused blindness, stripped the lining of the lungs, and eventually caused people to choke, or essentially drown, due to the build-up of fluid in the lungs. Before gas masks were available, soldiers were ordered to urinate on a piece of cloth and hold it over their noses and mouths to neutralize the gas. This would be a good time to read Wilfred Owen's *Dulce et Decorum est*, a poem by a poet/soldier who was subjected to a gas attack. At one point Wilfred Owen spent time in a psychiatric hospital suffering from battle fatigue, (a condition that was hard to describe, but essentially it meant that the soldier was unfit to carry one for psychiatric reasons) but returned to the battlefields only to be killed by a sniper's bullet a few days before the war ended. If you want to read more about Owen and other war poets try Pat Barker's Booker Prize winning novel, *Regeneration*. Barker's novel was also made into a movie in 1997. * **Machine Guns** * Although British generals did not initially believe that the machine gun would be of any use, it soon became obvious that machine guns would prove to be very efficient at killing enemy troops as they advanced over no man's land. Machine guns and artillery fire accounted for most of the deaths throughout the war. * **Submarines** * Although First World War submarines were very small and inefficient by today's standards, their torpedoes could sink the largest ships. Torpedoes could be fired underwater at a moving target. The main role of the German submarines in the First World War was trying (until 1917 very successfully) to destroy merchant ships (freighters) supplying Britain with war materials and other domestic products. The German goal in this campaign was to starve Britain into submission. * **Airplanes** * First World War airplanes were usually flown by a single pilot, and could only stay airborne for an hour before refuelling. Unarmed airplanes were used to scout enemy positions behind the lines. Because both sides sent planes into the air, "dogfights" often occurred between rival pilots. During the First World War, airplanes were very much in the experimental stage, but they are worth studying because of the huge impact they would have in the next war. ### D. Land Battles 1. **The Western Front** * After the Battle of the Marne on the Western Front, Germany realized that the Schlieffen Plan had failed. Germany simply began a holding action in the trenches of the West, in order to concentrate on fighting the Russians in the East. The Western Front essentially became a stalemate. We have borrowed the term "stalemate" from the game of chess. In chess a stalemate is declared when it become obvious that neither player has enough offensive power remaining on the board to achieve victory. Likewise, the battle front was stalemated. * **The Battle of Ypres, April 1915** * The Battle of Ypres in Belgium, was the first taste of trench warfare for Canadian troops. The French and Canadian troops that were defending Ypres retreated when the Germans used chlorine gas against them - this was the first poison gas attack in history. This attack, perhaps more than anything else, acted as a precursor to the ugly manner in which twentieth century war would be fought. Over 6,000 Canadians lost their lives before reinforcements arrived. Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae of Guelph, Ontario wrote the world-famous poem “In Flanders Fields" after the Battle of Ypres, in memory of a friend who had been killed. McCrae died of pneumonia in 1918, at the military hospital in France where he was in charge. * **The Battle of Verdun, February 1916** * Germany attacked the French at the Battle of Verdun. The battle lasted for six months, and the French alone lost 500,000 men. This battle and the Battle of the Somme were the defining battles of the First World War. Each was deliberately planned to be a battle of attrition in which the attackers' strategy was to wear down the enemy. Many people claim that the French never recovered psychologically from the Battle of Verdun. * **The Battle of the Somme, July 1916** * While the Germans were busy with the French at Verdun, Allied commanders tried to end trench warfare with a large attack on the German trenches at the Battle of the Somme. The attack was not successful. The sides had reached 1.25 million. The Battle of the Somme was a disaster for a number of reasons: * The Allies' shells were too weak to penetrate German concrete bunkers buried deep underground. * Underground explosions did not dislodge the wire protecting German trenches and therefore Allied troops became trapped. * Allied troops were overloaded with 25-60 kilograms of gear. * A nearby mine was detonated 10 minutes before the attack, which warned the Germans, causing the Allies to lose the element of surprise. * The attack was delayed and occurred in broad daylight, rather than in dawn hours. * The attack was ordered to continue despite heavy casualties. * There were 23 Canadian men who were ordered "shot at dawn" because they would or could not return to the front. Men who suffered from shell-shock (a psychological condition that results from the stress of active warfare) faced court martial and then a firing squad. British Field Marshall Haig stated, "If we accepted pleas like this how would we win the war?" Recently, the Canadian federal government has decided to pay tribute to those men who were executed. This decision will allow their names to be entered into the Book of Remembrance, which is on permanent display in the House of Commons. * **The Battle of Vimy Ridge, April 1917** * In October 1914, Vimy Ridge (in France near the Belgian border) fell into the hands of German soldiers. The ridge was important strategically because it was a strong natural fortress that was easy to defend, and very dangerous to attack. For the next two years, Allied armies tried to gain back the ridge. In April 1917, Canadian troops attacked the Germans at the Battle of Vimy Ridge (150,000 British and French troops had already died while trying to take the ridge before the Canadians arrived). The Allies had been bombing the ridge for three weeks in order to weaken German defences. Preparations for the attack were extremely thorough, and manoeuvres were practiced over and over. Even though the Canadian attack was well-planned and successful, Canadians suffered heavy losses with over 3,000 killed and 7,000 injured. This was a turning point of the war in favour of the Allies. The capture of Vimy Ridge was the first time in history that Canadian units fought together as one, independent of British forces, and this victory became a symbol of Canada's independence and nationhood. As a result of the success of Vimy Ridge and other battles, Canadian troops were soon recognized as some of the best troops on the Western Front. In June 1917, Canadian General Arthur Currie was promoted to replace British General Byng - this marked the end of British soldiers commanding Canadian troops. * **The Battle of Passchendaele, October 1917** * Allied advances bogged down in the mud of the Western Front at the Battle of Passchendaele. Canadian troops were asked to attack the Germans. Although General Currie said that the town of Passchendaele could not be taken because troops could not move through the mud, he was overruled and the Canadians were ordered to attack anyway. Not only did they take the town, but held it until reinforcements came. However, only one out of every five Canadians survived the battle - 16,000 died needlessly - and the offensive gained only 7 kilometers of mud that the Germans soon won back. 2. **The Eastern Front** * While Canadian troops did not participate in the Eastern Front, it is important to briefly discuss the events on this front because they are important to the outcome of the war. * **The Russian Campaign, August 1914-1916** * "By August 1914, Russian troops were invading Germany. This was a surprise, as the Germans expected that they would be the ones to invade Russia first. They also did not expect that the Russians would be able to react to the declaration of war so quickly. Although the Germans were surprised by the Russian attack, they were able to defeat the Russians in a number of battles. However, German success against the Russians helped to contribute to the stalemate on the Western front. (In order to defeat Russia, the Germans transferred troops from the Western front). The Germans continued to advance into Russia until 1916. * **The Gallipoli Campaign, April 1915-December 1915** * The Turks (part of the crumbling Ottoman Empire: in the Balkans) entered the war on the side of the Central powers in an attempt to keep the Russians out of the straits of the Gallipoli peninsula (a water passage that would allow the Russians access to the Balkans and the Black Sea). Remember that Russia's primary objective in the war was to obtain an all-weather port for trading and strategic purposes. On the other hand, the British also wanted to control the Gallipoli peninsula in order to open a supply line to Russia, and allow Britain to attack Austria-Hungary and Germany from the Balkans. This battle turned out to be just another military disaster, much like those in Western Europe. It had little impact on the war except to further demoralize Allied forces. Most of the troops fighting for the Allies in this poorly-planned attack were from Australia. You can watch an excellent movie (called simply, Gallipoli, starring Mel Gibson) in which the folly of this attack is clearly documented. ### E. War in the Air 1. **Canadians in the Air** * In 1914, the airplane was a new and unproven invention. Since Canada had no air force of its own, Canadians who wanted to fly joined the British Corps. By 1918, 40% of British Air Force pilots were Canadian. Young men flocked to the air force because trench warfare offered no glory, and they were looking for an adventure. However, Germany had the upper hand in the air because its planes greatly outnumbered the British and the French. 2. **Air Fighting Techniques** * Aerial duels between pilots were called dogfights. Planes dove on the enemy fighter aircraft from the rear and then fired. When a plane was hit, the pilot was helpless, as parachutes were not introduced until late in the war. At the beginning of the war, bombing from airplanes was quite primitive. Pilots would literally carry bombs on their laps and throw them out of the open cockpit at the appropriate time. Later in the war, aerial bombardment became more sophisticated. 3. **Role of the Pilot** * The role of pilots in the First World War was quite romanticized. Pilots built a reputation based on their abilities to manoeuvre in the air. Germany's greatest ace Baron von Richthofen (famous for shooting down the most enemy planes) was known as the "Red Baron." A Canadian, Captain Roy Brown, became famous for shooting him down. Billy Bishop, another Canadian pilot, was Canada's top wartime ace - he shot down 72 enemy planes. As a result, Bishop was awarded the Victoria Cross (a British military honour for courage and bravery). You can easily find good biographies of Billy Bishop on the internet. * Many casualties of the war in the air were the result of mechanical failure. By late 1916, the average life of a pilot was only three weeks! ### F. War at Sea 1. **Command of the Seas** * Germany knew that command of the seas was VERY important to Britain - Britain depended on its navy to keep the sea-lanes open for supplies and raw materials. When the war began, the British navy immediately chased the German navy out of the North Sea, and set up a blockade between Denmark and Norway/Sweden. As a result, the German surface fleet never entered the Atlantic. The Germans reacted by resorting to submarine warfare. 2. **The German U-boats** * In 1915, a German U-boat torpedoed and sank the British passenger ship, the Lusitania. In total 1,198 people drowned in panic and chaos. Of these victims, 128 were American. Many of these Americans were rich and powerful people. As a result, American public opinion began to turn against Germany. While it would be another two years before the Americans would join the war, it is important to note that the sinking of the Lusitania began the process of America coming out of isolation and becoming involved in world affairs. * Although the German navy was no match for the British, they had submarines called U-boats. U-boats attacked British ships in an attempt to cut off the shipment of supplies to Britain.