Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath PDF

Unit - 1 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath Learning Objectives To acquaint ourselves with „ The race for colonies leading to rivalry and clashes among the great po...

Unit - 1 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath Learning Objectives To acquaint ourselves with „ The race for colonies leading to rivalry and clashes among the great powers of Europe „ Emergence of Japan as the strongest and most aggressive power in East Asia „ Colonialism's impact on Africa „ Causes, course and results of the First World War „ Treaty of Versailles and its provisions „ Causes, course and outcome of the Russian Revolution „ Foundation, functioning and failure of the League of Nations Introduction international peace organisation, namely the League of Nations. 1914 is a turning point in world history. The political and social processes that began in 1789 1.1 Scramble for Colonies culminated in the First World War that broke Capitalist Countries’ Race for out in that year and decisively shaped the course Markets of the twentieth century. Historians therefore The aim of capitalistic industry was to call this as ‘the long nineteenth century’. This produce more and more. The surplus wealth was the first industrial war that drew on the thus produced was used to build more factories, economic resources of the entire world, and also railways, steamships and other such undertakings. affected large sections of the civilian population. Revolution in the means of communication and The political map of the world was redrawn. transportation in the latter half of the nineteenth Three major empires lay shattered by the end century facilitated the process of European of the War: Germany, Austria–Hungary, and expansion in Africa and other places. the Ottomans. The biggest outcome of the War A striking feature of nineteenth century was the Russian Revolution. It was a unique was that Europe emerged as the dominant event as well as the first revolution of its kind power while Asia and Africa were colonized in world history. For the first time, countries and exploited. Within Europe, England held tried to bring about world peace through the a pre-eminent position as the world leader of League of Nations. In this lesson, we discuss the capitalism. An ever-growing demand for markets circumstances leading to the outbreak of the and raw materials made the capitalist powers race First World War and its repercussions, including around the world for expanding their empire for the Russian Revolution and the formation of an exploitation. 1 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 1 10-02-2023 12:05:31  Rise of Monopoly Capitalism Asia: The Rise of Japan After 1870, the alliance of industry and In Asia, Japan during this period (Meiji finance seeking profits in markets for goods and era from 1867 to 1912), imitating Western capital, which was an essential characteristic of nations had become their equal in many imperialism, became evident in the latter half respects. Though the outlook of the rulers of the nineteenth century. The old ideas of free still remained feudal, Japan took to Western trade collapsed. There were trusts in the USA education and machinery. With a modern army and cartels in Germany. and navy, Japan had emerged as an advanced industrialised power. In 1894 she forced a war A trust is an industrial organisation engaged on China. The crushing defeat of China by in the production or distribution of any little Japan in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) commodity. The trust would possess adequate surprised the world. Despite the warning of the control over the supply and price of that three great powers Russia, Germany and France commodity to its own advantage. – Japan annexed the Liaotung peninsula with Port Arthur. By this action Japan proved that it Imperialism and its Essential was the strongest nation of the East Asia. Characteristics Capitalism inevitably led to imperialism. Japan, however, in view of the pressure According to Lenin, imperialism is the highest mounted by European Powers, soon gave up its claim over Port Arthur. Russia took advantage stage of capitalism. Besides being a market for of this and sent a large army to Manchuria. surplus goods, colonies served another purpose. Japan entered into an alliance with England Imperialism was not just about colonies. It in 1902 and demanded that Russia withdraw became a total system, the logic of which was troops from Manchuria. Russia underestimated total militarisation and total war. Japan. In 1904 the war began between the two 1.2 Rivalry of Great Powers countries. In this Russo-Japanese War, Japan defeated Russia and got back Port Arthur. After Europe this War Japan entered the “circle of the great In the nineteenth century, European powers Powers”. had colonised many other countries. By1880, Strong-arm Diplomacy of Japan most of the Asian countries had been colonised. After 1905 Japan took control of Korean Only Africa was left. The occupation, division domestic and foreign policy. The assassination and colonisation of Africa took place from 1881 of a prominent Japanese diplomat provided the to 1914. After 1870, England, France, Belgium, excuse in 1910 for Japan’s annexation of Korea. Italy and Germany joined in the scramble for The confusion in China following the downfall colonies. of the Manchu dynasty in 1912 provided Japan an opportunity for further expansion. Clashes amongst Great Powers Japan demanded the transfer of German rights Despite the lead in industrial growth and in Shantung to Japan and the recognition of the control of a vast empire England was not Japanese hold over Manchuria. This strong-arm satisfied. England was in competition with diplomacy aroused the hostility of both China Germany and the United States, which were and the European Powers. producing cheaper manufactured goods and Colonisation and its Fallout thus capturing England’s markets. National rivalry led to frequent clashes between these In 1876 barely 10 percent of Africa was great powers in Asia and Africa and Europe. under European rule. By 1900 practically the Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 2 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 2 10-02-2023 12:05:31  N THE WORLD WAR I W E 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 3 S AUSTRIA - HUNGARY BELGIUM RUSSIA BRITAIN (ENGLAND) (SOVIET RUSSIA) CANADA GERMANY BOSNIA FRANCE 3 SERBIA ITALY TURKEY JAPAN MOROCCO GREECE LEGEND INDIA TRIPLE ENTENTE AFRICA BRITISH EMPIRE FRENCH EMPIRE RUSSIAN EMPIRE TRIPLE ALLIANCE AUSTRALIA GERMAN EMPIRE ITALIAN EMPIRE NEW ZEALAND AUSTRIA - HUNGARIAN EMPIRE OTHERS Not to Scale Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 10-02-2023 12:05:31  whole of Africa was colonised. Britain, France Thus was formed the Triple Entente of Britain, and Belgium had divided the continent between France and Russia. them, leaving a few areas for Germany and Violent Forms of Nationalism Italy. Britain, France, Russia and Germany also established “spheres of influence” in China. With the growth of nationalism, the attitude Japan took over Korea and Taiwan. France of “my country right or wrong I support it” conquered Indo-China. The US took the developed. The love for one country demanded Philippines from Spain, and Britain and Russia hatred for another country. England’s jingoism, agreed to partition Iran. France’s chauvinism and Germany’s Kultur were militant forms of nationalism, contributing The first European attempts to carve out decisively to the outbreak of War. colonies in Africa resulted in bloody battles. The French had to fight a long and bitter war Aggressive Attitude of German to conquer Algeria and Senegal. The British lost Emperor to the Zulus (1879) and to the Sudanese Army Emperor Kaiser (1884). The Italian army suffered a devastating Wilhelm II of Germany defeat at the hands of an Ethiopian army at proclaimed that Germany Adowa (1896). would be the leader of the world. The German 1.3  Causes, Course and navy was expanded. The Results of World War I sea being considered a preserve of England ever (a) Causes since Napoleon’s defeat Kaiser Wilhelm II European Alliances and at Trafalgar (1805), Germany’s aggressive Counter-Alliances diplomacy and rapid building of naval bases In 1900 five of the European Great Powers convinced Britain that a German navy could were divided into two armed camps. One camp be directed only against her. Therefore, Britain consisted of the Central Powers-Germany, embarked on a naval race, which heightened Austria-Hungary and Italy. Under the guidance the tension between the two powers. of Bismarck, they had formed the Triple Alliance Hostility of France towards in 1882. The understanding was that Germany Germany and Austria would help each other. The other France and Germany were old rivals. camp consisted of France and Russia. Their Bitter memories of the defeat of 1871 and loss alliance was formed in 1894 with the promise of of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany rankled in mutual help if Germany attacked either of them. the minds of the French. German interference An isolated Britain wanted to break her isolation in Morocco added to the bitterness. The British and approached Germany twice but in vain. As agreement with France over Morocco was not Japan was increasingly hostile towards Russia, consented by Germany. So Kaiser Wilhelm as France was the ally of Russia, it preferred to II intentionally recognised the independence ally with Britain (1902). The Anglo-Japanese of the Sultan and demanded an international Alliance prompted France to seek an alliance conference to decide on the future of Morocco. with Britain to resolve colonial disputes over Morocco and Egypt. This resulted in the Entente Imperial Power Politics in the Cordiale (1904). In return for letting the French Balkans have a free hand in Morocco, France agreed The Young Turk Revolution of 1908, to recognize the British occupation of Egypt. an attempt at creating a strong and modern Britain subsequently reached an agreement government in Turkey, provided both Austria with Russia over Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 4 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 4 10-02-2023 12:05:31  and Russia with the opportunity to resume attacked and defeated Turkish forces in the first their activities in the Balkans. Austria and Balkan War (1912–13). According to the Treaty Russia met and agreed that Austria should of London signed in May 1913 the new state of annexe Bosnia and Herzegovina, while Russia Albania was created and the other Balkan states should have freedom to move her warships, divided up Macedonia between them. Turkey through the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, was reduced to the area around Constantinople. to the Mediterranean. Soon after this, Austria The division of Macedonia, however, did announced the annexation of Bosnia and not satisfy Bulgaria. Bulgaria attacked Serbia Herzegovina. Austria’s action aroused intense and Greece. But Bulgaria was easily defeated. opposition from Serbia. Germany gave Austria The Second Balkan War ended with the signing firm support. Germany went to the extent of of the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913. promising that if Austria invaded Serbia and in consequence Russia helped Serbia, Germany Immediate Cause would come to Austria’s assistance. The enmity The climax to these events in the Balkans between Austria and Serbia led to the outbreak occurred in Sarajevo in Bosnia. On 28 June of war in 1914. 1914 the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria-Hungary, was The Balkan Wars assassinated by Princip, a Bosnian Serb. Austria Turkey was a powerful country in the south saw in this an opportunity to eliminate Serbia west of Europe in the first half of eighteenth as an independent state. Germany thought century. The Ottoman empire extended over that it should strike first. It declared war on the Balkans and across Hungary to Poland. The Russia on 1 August. Germany had no quarrel Empire contained many non-Turkish people in with France, but because of the Franco-Russian the Balkans. Both the Turks and their subjects Alliance, the German army which was planning of different nationalities in the Balkans indulged a war against both France and Russia wanted to in the most frightful massacres and atrocities. use the occasion to its advantage. The German The Armenian genocide is a frightful example. violation of Belgian neutrality forced Britain to  enter War.     
  (b) Course of the War     Two Warring Camps   Black Sea       Central Powers   The warring nations were divided into two. The Central powers consisted of Germany,   Austria–Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. Italy which was earlier with Germany and Austria Mediterranean Sea  
 
 had left, as her attempt to recover Trentino in north east Italy, where Italians lived in majority Taking advantage of the political and but remained as part and parcel of Austria- economic instability of the Turkish Empire Hungary, was not supported by Germany. Italy from the second half of the eighteenth century, remained a neutral country when the War broke Greeks followed by others began to secede, one out. But it decided to enter the War hoping to after another, from Turkish control. Macedonia gain the territory in the north - east. Britain, had a mixed population. There were rivalries France and Italy signed the secret Treaty of among Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria and later London in April 1915, by which Italy agreed Montenegro for the control of it. In March 1912 to enter the War against the Central Powers in they formed the Balkan League. The League return for this territory after the War. 5 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 5 10-02-2023 12:05:31  Allies pushing back the Germans. Paris was thus Nine states that opposed the Central saved. The battle of Marne is a memorable for powers were: Russia, France, Britain, Italy, the trench warfare. United States, Belgium, Serbia, Romania and Greece. Romania and Greece declared war on the Central Powers in 1916 and 1917 respectively but played little part in the war. Most Americans wanted their country to remain neutral and so in the first three years the United States gave only moral support and valuable material aid to Britain and France. Tsar’s Abortive Attempts for Peace Battle of Tannenberg Tsar Nicholas II of Russia suggested to the Battle of Verdun Powers that they meet together to bring about an era of universal peace. In response, two Peace Between February and July 1916, the Conferences were held at The Hague in Holland Germans attacked Verdun, the famous fortress in 1899 and 1907 but in vain. in the French line. In the five-month Battle of War in Western or French Front Verdun two million men took part and half of them were killed. The British offensive against Germany steamrolled and smashed the Germans occurred near the River Somme. resistance of the people of Belgium. On the side In this four-month Battle of Somme Britain of the Allies, the burden of the fighting fell on the French army. Within a month Paris seemed lost 20,000 men on the first day. The battle of almost doomed. Verdun, however, decided the fortunes of the War in favour of the Allies. Battles of Tannenberg and Marne War in Eastern or Russian front Meanwhile Russian forces invaded East Prussia. In the battle of Tannenberg Russia In the eastern front, Russian troops suffered heavy losses. Germany defeated them repeatedly defeated the Austrians. But the decisively. At the Battle of the Marne (early Russians were in turn defeated by the Germans. September 1914), the French succeeded in Russia had the worst trained and equipped Trench Warfare: Trenches or ditches dug by army and therefore Russian losses were the troops enabled soldiers to safely stand and greatest. In 1917, the Tsarist regime in Russia protect themselves from enemy fire. The main was overthrown in a revolution. Russia wanted lines of trenches were connected to each other peace and consequently it signed the Treaty of and to the rear by a series of linking trenches Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918) with Germany. through which food, ammunition, fresh troops, Minor Theatres of War mail, and orders were delivered. In the Middle East Turkey also fought on the side of the central powers.Though Turkey met with initial success and the Allies suffered reverses, particularly in Mesopotamia and Gallipoli, ultimately Turkey was defeated.The Turks tried to attack Suez Canal, but were repulsed. Britain attacked Turkey in Iraq, and later in Palestine and Syria. Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 6 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 6 10-02-2023 12:05:32  In the Far East Naval Battles and America’s Entry into the War China also joined the allies. Japan was able to capture the province of Kiauchau given by the In 1916 a naval battle (Battle of Jutland) Germans to China in the province of Shantung. had taken place in the North Sea. The British There was no war in the Far East. Japan made won the battle. Thereafter Germany started use of the occasion to threaten China into their submarine warfare and their cruisers ceding valuable concessions and privileges. went roaming about, interfering with the shipping of the Allies. One of these was the In the Balkans famous Emden, which bombarded Madras. As The Austro-German army in coordination a counter measure to the blockade the Germans with Bulgaria crushed Serbia. Serbia came proclaimed in January 1917 that they would sink under German rule. Rumania watched the even neutral ships in certain waters. Lusitania, course of the War and in August 1916 joined an American ship, was torpedoed by a German the Allies. Rumania also passed under Austro- submarine. There was a lot of resentment in the German occupation. USA and President Wilson declared war against Germany in April 1917. America’s entry with Fate of Colonies of Germany in its enormous resources made Allied victory a Africa foregone conclusion. The German colonies in western and eastern Africa were also attacked by the Allies. As these colonies were quite far from Germany they could not receive any immediate help, and therefore surrendered to the Allies. Italy falls to Austrian onslaught Italy formally joined the Allies in the war in May 1916. Italians were fighting with the Austrians and continued to sustain their resistance. But when the Germans came to Sinking of Lusitania Austria’s help, the Italians collapsed. (c) The Armistice and Treaty of Central Powers’ Victories Versailles The Central Powers successfully occupied Germany ultimately surrendered in Belgium and a part of France in the north-east, November 1918. The armistice took effect Poland, Serbia and Romania. from 11 November 1918. Germany was The epicentre of the struggle was the forced to accept harsh terms by the political western front and the seas. As the Allies situation at home with the abdication of the controlled the sea-routes, they cut off the supply Kaiser William II. of food and other material reaching the Central Peace Conference in Paris Powers. In Germany and Austria women and The Peace Conference children suffered from hunger and privation. opened in Paris in January Germany attacked England by air. Bombs were 1919, two months after the thrown on London and places where there were signing of the armistice. major factories. Later aeroplanes were used for Woodrow Wilson (USA), targeting civilian population. The Germans Lloyd George (Prime introduced poison gas and soon both sides Minister of England) and A News resorted to its use. Clemenceau (Prime Minister paper Report 7 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 7 10-02-2023 12:05:32  of France) played a very important part in Separate treaties were drawn up and signed the deliberations. by the Allies with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. The Treaty with Turkey (Treaty of Sevres), though accepted by the Sultan, failed because of the resistance of Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his followers. Fallout of the First World War The First World War left a deep impact on European society and polity. Through Paris Peace Conference conscription, and through air raids, the War had involved and affected far more of the population Faced with a threat of a renewed war, the than in the past. 8 million had died in four years, German government was forced to agree to the while more than twice as many were wounded, terms. On 28 June, 1919 the peace treaty was and many crippled for life. Millions more had signed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. succumbed to the worldwide influenza of 1918. Provisions of the Treaty The outcome, in all countries, was imbalance 1. Germany was found guilty of starting the between the sexes—a shortage of men. Soldiers War and therefore was to pay reparations came to be placed above civilians. for the losses suffered. All Central Powers The War and its aftermath turned out to be were directed to pay war indemnity. a stirring period of history. The most striking of 2. The German army was to be limited to all was the rise and consolidation of the Soviet 100,000 men. A small navy was allowed. Union, the U.S.S.R or the Union of Socialist 3. The union of Austria and Germany was and Soviet Republics, as it was called. America forbidden. entered the War as a debtor country but it 4. All German colonies became mandated emerged as the money-lender to the world in territories under the League of Nations. the aftermath of the War. 5. Germany was forced to revoke the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (with Russia) and Bucharest Another outstanding event of this period (Bulgaria). was the awakening of the colonies and their 6. Alsace–Lorraine was returned to France. inspired attempts to gain freedom. 7. The former Russian territories of Finland, Mustafa Kemal Pasha played a remarkable Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were to be role for Turkey’s rebirth as a nation. Kemal independent Pasha modernised Turkey and changed it out of 8. Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark all recognition. and some small districts to Belgium. Impact on India 9. Poland was recreated. 10. The Rhineland was to be occupied by the The First World War had a significant Allies. The area on the east bank of the impact on India. The British recruited a vast Rhine was to be demilitarized. contingent of Indians to serve in Europe, Africa and West Asia. After the War, the soldiers came President Wilson laid down his Fourteen back with new ideas which had an impact on Points, which were to be followed by the Allies. the Indian society. India contributed £ 230 The most important one he highlighted was the million in cash and over £ 125 million in loans need for ‘a general association of nations for towards war expenses. India also sent war the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of materials to the value £ 250 million. This caused political independence and territorial integrity enormous economic distress. There were grain to great and small states like’. riots as poor people looted shops. Towards the Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 8 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 8 10-02-2023 12:05:32  end of the War India too suffered under the account of industrialisation were aggrieved as world-wide epidemic of influenza. (£ - symbol they got very low wages. of Pound sterling) Role of Revolutionaries The War conditions led to the rise of Home The spread of revolutionary ideas among Rule Movement in India. The Congress was the intelligentsia and their repression by the reunited during the war. Tsar’s government made the socialistically India and Indians had taken an active part inclined students to carry their propaganda in the War believing that Britain would reward to the peasantry. Soon, based on the Marxist India's loyalty. But only disappointment was philosophy, new ideas began to take shape and in store.Thus the War had multiple effects on a Social and Democratic Labour Party was Indian society, economy and polity. formed. 1.4  Russian Revolution Autocracy of the Tsar and its Impact Tsar Nicholas II of Romanov dynasty Introduction had little experience of The biggest outcome government. His wife of the War, the Russian Tsarina Alexandra was revolution, was unique in a dominant personality world history. The socio- and Nicholas was under political and economic her strong influence. Tsar Nicholas II conditions prevailing in Determined that Russia Russia were brought to a head by the vast should not be left out in the scramble for losses and sufferings caused by the War. There colonial possessions, Nicholas encouraged were really two revolutions in the year 1917, Russian expansion in Manchuria. This one in March and the other in November. provoked a war with Japan in 1904. The On the abdication of the Tsar the bourgeois resulting Russian defeat led to strikes and government which followed, wanted to riots. On 22 January 1905 Father Gapon, a continue the war. But the people were against it. priest, organised a march of men, women So there was a second great uprising under the and children on the Tsar’s Winter Palace in guidance their leader Lenin, who seized power St. Petersburg demanding a representative and established a communist government in national assembly and agrarian and industrial Russia. reforms. But police and soldiers fired on the procession. Hundreds were killed and many Causes of the Revolution thousands wounded. The events of this day Social Causes (known as Bloody Sunday) led to riots, strikes In Russia Peter the Great and Catherine and violence. Nicholas was forced to grant a II attempted westernisation without changing constitution and establish a parliament, the the social conditions. The Russian peasants Duma. This was no longer satisfactory to the were serfs tied to lands owned by wealthy left-wing parties that formed a Soviet (council) Russians. After Russia’s defeat in the Crimean of worker's delegates in St Petersburg, led by War, some reforms were introduced. In 1861 Trotsky. Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom and Opposition to Tsar and emancipated the serfs. But they were not given Dissolution of Duma enough land to subsist. These peasants became the powder keg for the revolution. The labourers The outbreak of the First World War had and workers whose number had increased on temporarily strengthened the monarchy, as 9 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 9 10-02-2023 12:05:32  Russia allied to France and Britain. As there The revolutionary Tamil poet was rumour of a palace revolution. Nicholas Bharathiyar cheerfully welcomed the made himself the Commander-in-Chief of the revolution in Russia by penning these army. At the end of 1916, Rasputin, who had poetic lines….. a domineering influence over the Tsar and the The Mother Great, the Power supreme, Tsarina, was murdered by a member of the Tsar’s family. The members of the St. Petersburg Soviet Turned her glance benign towards Russia, were arrested. Whenever the Duma opposed the The Revolution of the Age, Tsar’s move, it was dissolved and fresh elections Behold the wonder, rises high held. Without change of government policy, the The tyrant howling falls down limp, fourth Duma ended with the revolution of 1917. The shoulders of the heavenly gods, Popular Uprisings Are swelling now with joy and pride, The bread shortages among women textile Eyes hot with unshed tears, the demons, workers, many with husbands in the army, Perish. O people of the world, forced them to go on strike anyway and march Behold this mighty change! through the factory areas of Petrograd, the capital of the Russian Empire. Masses of women Provisional Government workers demanding “Bread for workers” waved There were two parallel bodies to take their arms towards factory workers and shouted on government functions. One was of the “Come out!” “Stop work!” The city’s 400,000 bourgeois politicians of the old state Duma, workers joined the movement the next day (24 comprising propertied classes. On the other February). there were workers’ delegates drawn together in a workers’ council, or Soviet. Those in the Duma were able to form a provincial government with the consent of the Soviets. The Soviet was dominated by Mensheviks and the minority Bolsheviks were timid and undecided. The situation changed with the arrival of Lenin. Failure of Provisional Government Lenin was in Switzerland when the revolution broke out. Lenin wanted continued Revolution of 1917 revolution. His slogan of ‘All power to the Soviets’ soon won over the workers’ leaders. Devastated Abdication of Tsar by war time shortages, the people were attracted The government used the troops to break by the slogan of ‘Bread, Peace and Land.’ But the strike. But soon mutinies broke out in the the Provisional government made two grave barracks. The Tsar ordered a declaration of mistakes. First, it postponed a decision on the martial law. But his order was not broadcast demand for the redistribution of land and the in the city, as there was no one to do this job. other was government decided to continue with The Tsar then tried to return to Petrograd. The the war. Frustrated peasant soldiers deserted railway workers stopped his train. The generals their posts and joined those who had resorted at the front and some leaders in Petrograd, to land grabbing. This intensified the rising in frightened by these developments pleaded with Petrograd led by Bolsheviks. The government the Tsar to abdicate. On 15 March, Nicholas II banned Pravda and arrested all Bolsheviks. abdicated. Trotsky was also arrested. Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 10 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 10 10-02-2023 12:05:32  Takeover by the Bolshevik Party Global Influence of the Russian under Lenin’s leadership Revolution In October Lenin persuaded the The revolution fired people’s imagination Bolshevik Central Committee to decide on across the world. In many countries, communist immediate revolution. Trotsky prepared parties were formed. The Russian communist a detailed plan. On 7 November the key government encouraged the colonies to fight government buildings, including the Winter for their freedom. Debates over key issues, land Palace, the Prime Minister’s headquarters, reforms, social welfare, workers’ rights, and were seized by armed factory workers and gender equality started taking place in a global revolutionary troops. On 8 November 1917 context. a new Communist government was in office Pravda is a Russian word meaning “Truth”. in Russia. Its head this time was Lenin. The It was the official newspaper of the Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party of the Soviet Union from Communist Party. 1918 to 1991. Lenin was born in 1870 near the Middle 1.5 League of Nations Volga to educated parents. Influenced by Structure and Composition the ideas of Karl Marx, The Covenant of the League was worked Lenin believed that out at the Paris Peace Conference and included the way for freedom Lenin in each of the treaties that were signed after was through mass action. Lenin gained the the First World War. It was largely due to the support of a small majority (bolshinstvo), pressure from President Wilson that this known as Bolsheviks, which became the task was accomplished. In drawing up the Bolshevik Party. His opponents, in minority constitution of this organization, the ideas of (menshinstvo), were called Mensheviks. Britain and America prevailed. The League which was formed in 1920 Outcome of the Revolution consisted of five bodies: the Assembly, the The Russian Communist Party Council, the Secretariat, the Permanent eliminated illiteracy and poverty in Russia Court of Justice, and the International Labour within a record time. Russian industry and Organisation. Each member-country was agriculture developed remarkably. Women represented in the Assembly. The Council was were given equal rights, including rights to the executive of the League. Britain, France, vote. Industries and banks were nationalised. Italy, Japan and the United States were originally Land was announced as social property. declared permanent members of the Council. Land was distributed to poor peasants. Lenin Each member had one vote and since all thought the most important factor for the decisions had to be unanimous, even the small fall of Provisional government was its failure nations possessed the right of veto. to withdraw from World War. So Lenin The secretariat of the League of Nations immediately appealed for peace. Unmindful was located at Geneva. Its first Secretary General of the harsh terms dictated by the Central was Sir Eric Drummond from Britain. The staff Powers, Lenin opted for withdrawing from of the secretariat was appointed by the Secretary the War to concentrate on the formation of General in consultation with the Council. new government. In March 1918 the Treaty of The International Court of Justice was set up Brest– Litovsk was signed. 11 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 11 10-02-2023 12:05:32  in The Hague. The court was made of fifteen After two years the US and Russia began to judges. The International Labour Organisation participate in the non-political activities of the comprised a secretariat and general conference League. which included four representatives from each country. Violations Objectives of the League One of the major problems confronting the European powers was how to achieve The two-fold objective of the League of disarmament. In 1925 the Council of the League Nations was to avoid war and maintain peace set up a commission to hold a Disarmament in the world and to promote international Conference to sort out the problem. But the cooperation in economic and social affairs. proposed conference materialised only in The League intended to act as conciliator February 1932. In this Conference, Germany’s and arbitrator and thereby resolve a dispute demand of equality of arms with France was in its early stages. If wars should break out rejected. In October Hitler withdrew Germany despite arbitration, the members should apply from the Conference and the League. sanctions to the aggressor first economic and Japan attacked Manchuria in September then military. 1931 and the League condemned Japan. So The difficulty in achieving the objectives Japan also followed the example of Germany was increased from the beginning by the and resigned from the League. In the context absence of three Great Powers namely USA (did of Italy’s attack on Ethiopia, the League applied not become a member), Germany (a defeated sanctions. As the sanctions came into effect, Italy nation) and Russia. The latter two joined in resigned from the League in 1937. Thereafter 1926 and 1934. While Germany resigned in the League was a passive witness to events, 1933, Russia was expelled in 1939. taking no part in the crises over the Rhineland, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland. The last Activities of the League decisive action it took was in December 1939 The League was called in to settle a number when Russia was expelled for her attack on of disputes between 1920 and 1925. The League Finland. The Assembly did not meet again and was successful in three issues. In 1920 a dispute the League of Nations was finally dissolved in arose between Sweden and Finland over the 1946. sovereignty of the Aaland Islands. The League ruled that the islands should go to Finland. In Causes of Failure the following year the League was asked to settle The League appeared to be an organisation the frontier between Poland and Germany in of those who were victorious in the First World Upper Silesia, which was successfully resolved War. by the League. The third dispute was between Since it lacked the military power of its Greece and Bulgaria in 1925. Greece invaded own, it could not enforce its decisions. Bulgaria, and the League ordered a ceasefire. After investigation it blamed Greece and The founders of this peace organisation decided that Greece was to pay reparations. underestimated the power of nationalism. The Thus the League had been successful until principle of “collective security’ could not be signing of the Locarno Treaty in 1925. By this applied in actual practice. treaty, Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, When Italy, Japan and Germany, headed and Italy mutually guaranteed peace in Western by dictators, refused to be bound by the orders Europe. Thereafter Germany joined the League of the League, Britain and France were the only and was given a permanent seat on the Council. major powers to act decisively. Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 12 01_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 12 10-02-2023 12:05:32