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UNIT 3: NATIONALIST FERVOR AND IMPERIAL AMBITIONS — WORLD WAR I Concept: Short- and long-term causes Short-term causes Long-term causes Specific, observable, and Broad, complex, identifiable events or interconnected,...

UNIT 3: NATIONALIST FERVOR AND IMPERIAL AMBITIONS — WORLD WAR I Concept: Short- and long-term causes Short-term causes Long-term causes Specific, observable, and Broad, complex, identifiable events or interconnected, and/or phenomena that can directly "contentious" conditions that or immediately trigger other set the stage or allow certain events/phenomena events to happen Causes of World War I Historical context Europe starting from the mid-1800s has been organized into a "concert" or peaceful order between different powers, including Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy Right before World War I, the Balkan states declared independence from the Ottoman Empire, which had territories in Southeastern Europe Militarism The need to maintain territorial integrity in the face of larger powers, or to balance the other powers, meant states opted to build strong national militaries as a deterrent This translated to the glorification of war, added budget and political influence of military leaders, and policies that either strengthened military (eg. conscription) or utilized military might (eg. brinksmanship) Alliances The balance of powers in Europe was perpetuated and strengthened through strategic military alliances between European countries, which pledged mutual defense in warfare Two factions in particular emerged: ○ Triple Entente: France, UK, Russia ○ Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy Imperialism Tensions and shared interests between European states were not over territory in Europe alone, but also territory, resource control, and political influence in colonial ventures in Africa and Asia Nationalism European nationalism developed anti-other nation sentiment accompanying it, often with historical rivals or over those who held perceived historical lands (eg. France and the Alsace-Lorraine territory lost to Prussia) Balkan independence led to strong ethnic nationalism that often conflicted with each other; in particular, Serbian nationalism advocated for a union of Serbs, Croats, and Bosnians – which included those who were in Austria-Hungary Governments also actively promoted these types of sentiment through propaganda 1 Course of the war Fronts Western front was centered around France and her borders with Italy and Germany, around Switzerland, the site of the heaviest and longest campaigns since the plains of France made it easier to create trenches Eastern front spanned the marshy borders of German Prussia and Austrian Galicia and Russia; because the frontline was long and geography made movement difficult, this front barely had progress, until it was eventually stopped due to the Russian Revolution Other areas of conflict include: ○ Southern front, after Italy switched sides ○ Colonial territories: Middle East held by the Ottomans and the budding Arab Revolt, North Africa owned by Europe, and Asia, particularly China and Southeast Asia with German possessions ○ Home front: referring to the defense and everyday life of countries away from the battlefields, particularly industries vital to the war (ie. the economic life and social changes of non-combatants) Need for restricted resource usage and military-oriented policy led to increased powers of the government Need for greater production of goods and war equipment led to more jobs for women in industrial economy Notable battles/campaigns: ○ Gallipoli: failed attempt to start a frontline splitting Austria-Hungary and Ottomans ○ Great Arab Revolt: nationalist uprisings in Ottoman Arabia that severely crippled Ottoman involvement in the war ○ Isonzo: after Italy joined the Allied powers, fought with Austria-Hungary in the Italian Alps ○ Jutland: largest ship-to-ship naval engagement in the North Sea ○ Verdun, Somme, Ardennes, Charleroi, Amiens, etc.: main cities and areas in France along the Western Front that saw most fighting US entered the war due to different triggers from the Germans: ○ Since they were assisting the Allies with weapons and supplies, convoys crossed the Atlantic to bring them to Europe; Germany started to attack these convoys and other ships, including passenger-carrying ships like the RMS Lusitania ○ Germany knew the US would be a major threat to German success, so foreign minister Arthur Zimmermann reached out to Mexico promising recovery of lost territory to the US, which further stoked US willingness to join the war Tactics and technology WWI involved heavy use of newly-developed technology at the time in a large scale with devastating effects Trench warfare solidified lines of control, but also made them stagnant; this meant countries were fighting a war of attrition; this resulted in the proliferation of diseases, severe psychological trauma, and war weariness among soldiers Airplanes were first introduced for war as a platform to drop bombs and as a countermeasure against said bombers Chemical weapons were developed as a more effective way of getting soldiers to leave trenches and force crossing into no man's land or retreat; chemicals used were mustard gas (irritates airways) and chlorine gas 2  (burns skin) Development of dreadnoughts and big-gun warships led to a distinct naval front, with very limited but heavy engagements and the execution of blockades and convoy attacks, mostly in North Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea, and Black Sea Tanks were developed as means of either a) safely crossing over trenches and/or b) safely crossing no man's land; British Mark I-IX tanks were the most successful, while the French Renault FT was the most innovative US industrial production led to the development of quickly made goods such as Liberty ships that greatly boosted wartime logistics End of the war Allied forces' Hundred Days Offensive successfully pushed into German territory, putting Germany into the defensive without support from the Ottomans (dealing with the Great Arab Revolt) and Austria-Hungary (who were forced to deal with the southern front alone after Bulgaria surrendered), leading to the collapse of the Central Powers Germany was also materially exhausted: soldiers had low morale and were spread too thin across frontlines, and Allied blockade deprived Germany of food and other resources Internally, Germany was dealing with the German revolution, forcing the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II and reforming Germany into a republic Germany signs armistice on November 11, 1918, ending hostilities; from 1919-1920, Allies would discuss reparations and responsibility over the war in the Paris Peace Conference With the resulting Treaty of Versailles, Germany was made to take full responsibility over the war, resulting in “punishment” for such: ○ Reparations to Allied powers ○ Abolition of the German air force and heavy restrictions on army and navy ○ Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France, ceding of parts of western Germany (West Prussia, Posen, Upper Silesia) to Poland, Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium, and northern Schleswig to Denmark ○ Demilitarization of the Rhineland region and occupation of the surrounding Saarland 3 Effects of World War I Short-term WWI caused a cumulative loss of 37 million soldiers killed in action, $190 billion in spending, and 8-12 million civilian casualties The war as it progressed also triggered economic decline, as the labor force decreased, trade and agriculture was disrupted, and countries fell into debt Most countries involved underwent major political shifts (Turkey, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Russia) as a result of the instability after the war ○ Russia in particular saw the rise of the first communist state under the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin Most family structures throughout the West changed drastically due to being orphaned from war Public became more aware of the mental health effects of the war, particularly concerning trauma League of Nations founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles, with the goal of coordinating diplomatic relations between states and resolving interstate conflicts; however, enforcement of these goals was not sufficiently done, including ○ Non-participation of Russia and USA, and eventual withdrawal of Japan and Germany ○ Unanimous decision making requirement was too difficult to work with ○ General animosity against both Treaty of Versailles and other member states Due to conditions in the frontlines, sickness and disease became prevalent; soldiers brought this disease home, causing a Spanish flu pandemic, causing an additional 50 million deaths Long-term effects USA, unlike Britain, France, Italy, and other European powers experienced a sharp rise in productivity and industry ○ Return of male laborers home, albeit in smaller numbers after the war ○ Women still kept jobs, though often with lower pay ○ Good momentum from wartime industrial production, particularly with developed technologies ○ Strong isolationist, anti-Europe sentiment due to human cost, leading to economic protectionism However, American economic boom had to be directed to assisting Germany to help them fulfill their financial obligations under the Treaty of Versailles, which essentially provided the backbone of wartime reparations for the rest of Europe High production of goods caused overproduction, surplus, and falling prices of goods; however, income equality was not improved, in fact worsened as businessmen got wealthier and laborers didn’t see a rise in wages Banking system was also weak, allowing the non-secured buying and selling of stocks in the stock market; this created a bubble (feedback loop) of a stock’s prices going up and more people purchasing those stocks without actual profit Once this started falling sharply, many stockholders withdrew en masse, and the stock market crashed in 1929, depriving millions of Americans of money This rapid loss of productivity and shutdown of businesses triggered the Great Depression; US government attempted to control the crash through economic programs like the New Deal and budget reallocation, but this did not alleviate poverty, unemployment, and homelessness effectively 4  This was not isolated in the US, but had ripple effects on the world and other businesses and economies dependent on American production, or had investments in American businesses In particular, economic downturn and income inequality in countries with weak democratic systems became prone to the rise of authoritarian leaders, who promised a style of governance that would lead these countries away from suffering through nationalist policy Most extreme forms of authoritarianism in Russia, Germany, and Italy resulted in totalitarian regimes, which operated with common characteristics ○ Strong, single-party rule overseen by one singular leader, an associated cult of personality around that leader, and the enforcement of this order with force either by military or paramilitary groups ○ Clearly defined, nationalism-centered ideology which advocated for strong social conservatism and suspension of individual liberties in the interest of the state, perpetuated by strong propaganda efforts and control of new mass media (radio, press, etc.) by the state Examples of totalitarian regimes ○ Italy, Benito Mussolini, and Fascism: resurgence of Italy as the new Roman Empire, which required the control of the rise of communism in Italy and factional regionalism as well as (late) participation in imperialist efforts in Africa ○ Germany, Adolf Hitler, and Nazism: dominance of the German/Aryan peoples, necessitating the expansion of German territory to provide “living space” (lebensraum) for Germans and enforcing purity against “unclean” races (eg. Jews, necessitating social isolation and holocaust) Internationally, Germany also started to defy the Treaty of Versailles by rapidly militarizing and rearming while restarting wartime-like industrial production ○ Russia, Joseph Stalin, and Stalinist communism: overthrow of the old tsardom and the establishment of a highly industralized centralized state dominated by the working class, though managed by a paramount leader; control implemented through forced labor (gulags) of political/ideological dissidents and forced collectivization (shared use of land) of agriculture 5