Chapter 6: Learning PDF

6.1 You Learn From Experience 6.2 You Learn in Three Ways 6.3 You Brain Changes During Learning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qG2SwE_6uVM Learning: a change in behavior, resulting from experience § Learning is central to almost all areas of human existence. Behaviorism: a formal learning the...

6.1 You Learn From Experience 6.2 You Learn in Three Ways 6.3 You Brain Changes During Learning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qG2SwE_6uVM Learning: a change in behavior, resulting from experience § Learning is central to almost all areas of human existence. Behaviorism: a formal learning theory that arose in the early twentieth century John Watson: focused on the environment as the key determinant for learning Influenced by John Locke: the infant is a tabula rasa (Latin for “blank slate”) B. F. Skinner: designed animal experiments to discover the basic rules of learning § The ability to adapt behaviors for a particular environment is crucial. Which sounds indicate potential dangers? What foods are dangerous? When is it safe to sleep? NON-ASSOCIATIVE ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING BY LEARNING LEARNING WATCHING OTHERS § Non-associative learning: a person learning about a stimulus, such as a sight or a sound, in the external world § We learn through our senses § Touching a cactus Habituation: a decrease in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus § Especially if the stimulus is neither harmful nor rewarding Sensitization: an increase in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus § Heightened preparation in a situation with potential harm or reward Associative § Associative learning: understanding how two or more pieces of information are related to each Learning other (1) § Associations develop through two forms of conditioning: Classical conditioning: learning that two stimuli go together oExample: Music from scary movies elicits anxiousness when heard. Operant conditioning: learning that a behavior leads to a particular outcome oExample: Studying leads to better grades. § Three types of learning by watching others are: Observational learning: when we learn or change a behavior after watching a person engage in that behavior Modeling: displaying a behavior for others to imitate Vicarious conditioning: learning to engage in a behavior, or not, after seeing others being rewarded, or punished, for performing that action § Learning occurs when these synaptic connections in the brain become stronger over time through long-term potentiation (LTP). The idea that LTP is involved in learning and memory is supported by evidence. o Hippocampus o Drug studies Through Classical Conditioning, You Learn that Stimuli Are Related Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning You Can Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning https://vimeo.com/212581306 Classical conditioning: a type of learned response in which a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces a response  § Ivan Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904 Through for research on the digestive system. Classical Conditioning, § Pavlov observed that dogs began to salivate as soon as they saw bowls of food. You Learn Salivating at the sight of a bowl is not That Stimuli automatic. Behavior acquired through learning by Are Related association. § Pavlov’s experiments revealed four steps in classical conditioning: § Step 1: Begin with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response. Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that naturally elicits a response without any prior learning (food) Unconditioned response (UR): a response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex (salivation) (US) (UR) Unconditioned Unconditioned Stimulus Response § Step 2: A neutral stimulus is presented. Neutral stimulus (NS): anything not previously associated with the unconditioned response (metronome) (NS) (NR) Neutral Stimulus No Response  § Step 3: conditioning trials (start of learning) A neutral stimulus (metronome) is presented together with the unconditioned stimulus (food). The dog begins to associate the neutral stimulus (metronome) with the US (food). The neutral stimulus is now considered the conditioned stimulus (CS). (NS) (US) Neutral Unconditioned Associative Pairing Stimulus Stimulus § Step 4: critical trials (association learned) Conditioned stimulus (CS): a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place Conditioned response (CR): a response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned Metronome alone (CS), without food, makes dog salivate (CR) (CS) (CR) Conditioned Conditioned Stimulus Response Phase 1: Before Conditioning US (food in mouth) UR (salivation) NS (tone) (no salivation) Phase 2: During Conditioning NS (tone) + US (food in mouth) UR (salivation) Phase 3: After Conditioning CS (tone) CR (salivation) 1. Whenever you see a scary movie, you always eat a box of thin mints. Now you find that just seeing thin mints makes you feel scared. UCS UCR CS CR 2. You meet a new person who is an excellent cook. After a few superb meals you find yourself liking that person very much. UCS UCR CS CR 3. One of your friends drinks several martinis while eating pepperoni pizza. After becoming sick, she refuses to eat pepperoni pizza. UCS UCR CS CR Question 1: scary movie is the UCS feeling sacred because of the movie UCR thin mints is the CS feeling scared is the CR Question 2: superb meals is the UCS pleasant feeling associated with the good food is the UCR the person is the CS liking the person is the CS Question 3: martini’s is the UCS becoming sick is the UCR pepperoni pizza is the CS nauseousness associated with the pizza is the CR  § Acquisition: the gradual formation of an association between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli Acquisition Occurs during third step in classical conditioning trials Strongest conditioning occurs when CS is presented slightly before US § Extinction: a process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus Extinction Through extinction, the animal learns that the original association no longer holds true.  § Spontaneous recovery: a process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges after the conditioned stimulus is presented again Spontaneous May occur after only one pairing following Recovery extinction Response will weaken if CS-US pairings do not continue § Stimulus generalization: learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response In nature, the CS is rarely experienced in exactly the same way. Thankfully, animals respond to variations in the CS. § Stimulus discrimination: a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus Two plants might be similar but one is poisonous. © Cengage Learning  § Second-order conditioning: second CS becomes associated with first CS; elicits a CR when presented alone If Pavlov’s dog saw a black square Second- presented with the metronome (CS) order after the food (US) was removed, during Step 4: Critical Trials, then the Conditioning black square becomes a second order (CS) that causes salivation (CR) alone. Neither US nor original CS present § Phobia: an acquired fear that is exaggerated in comparison to the real threat of an object or of a situation § Phobias can be learned through classical conditioning: § Watson showed “Little Albert” various neutral objects (a white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, ball of white wool). § Watson paired a rat (CS) with a loud clanging noise (US) until the rat alone produced fear (CR). § The fear response generalized to all similar stimuli. § What happened to Little Albert? § He was William Albert Barger, who died in 2007 at age 87. § His relatives described him as easygoing, so he does not seem to have suffered long-term problems from being in the study. § However, Barger was described as disliking animals, especially dogs, throughout his life and would cover his ears when he heard barking. § Counterconditioning: exposing subject to phobia during an enjoyable task § Systematic desensitization: type of counterconditioning involving exposure to feared stimulus while relaxing CS → CR1 (fear) connection replaced with CS → CR2 (relaxation) connection  § Pavlov’s belief: Any two events presented together would produce learned association; stronger associations were from stronger intensities. Adaptation § By the 1960s, data suggested that some and Cognition conditioned stimuli were more likely to produce learning than others. Influence § Factors that strengthen classical conditioning Classical 1. include Frequency of pairings Conditioning 2. Timing 3. Intensity of the unconditioned stimulus § Certain pairings are more likely to be associated. § Smell or taste cues guide eating behavior and condition taste aversions, which help to avoid illness and death. § Auditory and visual systems are programed and prepared for such potential dangers as snakes, fires, heights, etc. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6LEcM0E0io&t=2s Through Operant Conditioning, You Learn the Consequences of Your Actions Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning Both Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning Affects Your Life Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LEJqowyuyi0 § Operant conditioning: a learning process in which an action’s consequences determine how likely an action is to be performed in the future § Edward Thorndike’s puzzle box challenged food- deprived animals to find escape. The trap door would open if the animal performed a specific action. The animal quickly learned to repeat the behavior to free itself and reach the food. § Thorndike’s law of effect: Any behavior leading to a “satisfying state of affairs” is likely to be repeated. Any behavior leading to an “annoying state of affairs” is less likely to reoccur.  § B. F. Skinner developed a more formal learning theory based on the law of effect: Operant conditioning conveys how animals B. F. operate on their environments to produce effects. Skinner’s Learning Reinforcer: a stimulus that occurs after a response and increases likelihood of response reoccurring Theory The consequences of an action determine the likelihood of behavior in the future. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eLaa8cgljKk § Shaping: the powerful process of reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior Shaping can improve learning. Reinforcers that are necessary for survival, such as food or water, are called primary reinforcers. Events or objects that serve as reinforcers but do not satisfy biological needs are called secondary reinforcers. These reinforcers are established through conditioning. § Premack principle: A more valued activity can be used to reinforce the performance of a less valued activity. § “Eat your spinach and then you’ll get dessert.” § “After I finish reading this chapter, I’ll watch that YouTube clip.”  Reinforcement and punishment have opposite effects on behavior. Reinforcement Punishment makes makes a behavior a behavior less more likely to be likely to occur repeated. again.  § Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a given behavior. Positive reinforcement: the addition of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated Positive and o Example: working harder after you Negative receive a pay raise Reinforcement Negative reinforcement: the removal of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated o Example: taking a pill to get rid of a headache  § By contrast, both positive and negative punishment reduce the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Positive punishment: the addition of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a Positive and behavior will recur o Example: receiving a speeding ticket Negative Punishment Negative punishment: the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will recur o Example: teenager loses driving privileges for speeding Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement a. A rat presses a bar and receives a food pellet. b. A child swears and is spanked. c. A teenager is put on restriction for keeping the car out too late. d. A child swims three more laps just so he can stop swimming, which he hates. e. You study and get an A. f. You are caught speeding and are given a ticket by the highway patrol. g. A child is acting up in class and is sent to the corner of the Positive Punishment Negative Punishment room for 10 minutes. h. Since you find that aspirin relieves your headaches, you find yourself taking it every time you feel a headache coming on. i. Johnny puts his quarter in the vending matching and gets a piece of candy. j. You stick your hand in a flame and you get a painful burn. k. Bobby fights with his sister and does not get to watch TV that night. l. A child misbehaves and gets a spanking. m. You come to work late regularly and you get demoted. n. You walk the dog to avoid having dog poop in the house. o. Nathan tells a good joke and his friends all laugh. p. Julie stays out past her curfew and now does not get to use the car for a week. a. A rat presses a bar and receives a food pellet.- Positive Reinforcement b. A child swears and is spanked.- Positive Punishment c. A teenager is put on restriction for keeping the car out too late- Negative Punishment d. A child swims three more laps just so he can stop swimming, which he hates. – Negative Reinforcement e. You study and get an A.- Positive Reinforcement f. You are caught speeding and are given a ticket by the highway patrol.- Positive Punishment g. A child is acting up in class and is sent to the corner of the room for 10 minutes.- Negative Punishment h. Since you find that aspirin relieves your headaches, you find yourself taking it every time you feel a headache coming on. – Negative Reinforcement i. Johnny puts his quarter in the vending matching and gets a piece of candy.- Positive Reinforcement j. You stick your hand in a flame and you get a painful burn.- Positive Punishment k. Bobby fights with his sister and does not get to watch TV that night.- Negative Punishment l. A child misbehaves and gets a spanking.- Positive Punishment m. You come to work late regularly and you get demoted.- Negative Punishment n. You walk the dog to avoid having dog poop in the house. – Negative Reinforcement o. Nathan tells a good joke and his friends all laugh. – Positive Reinforcement p. Julie stays out past her curfew and now does not get to use the car for a week.- Negative Punishment Continuous reinforcement: Behavior is reinforced each time it occurs. Produces faster learning Less common in real-world situations Partial reinforcement: Behavior is occasionally reinforced. More common in real-world situations  The effect of partial reinforcement on operant conditioning depends on the type of schedule. Fixed schedule: predictable basis Four Different Schedules of Variable schedule: unpredictable basis Partial Interval schedule: based on passage of time Reinforcement Ratio schedule: based on number of responses § Fixed interval schedule (FI): reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after a predetermined amount of time has passed since the last reward § Example: paycheck § Variable interval schedule (VI): reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after an unpredictable and varying amount of time since the last reward § Example: pop quiz § More consistent response rates than fixed interval § Fixed ratio schedule (FR): reinforcing a particular behavior after that behavior has occurred a predetermined number of times § Example: paid by the completed task § Often yields better response rates than fixed interval § Variable ratio schedule (VR): reinforcing a particular behavior after the behavior has occurred an unpredictable and varying number of times § Example: slot machine § Write an Operant Conditioning Case Study § It must include a reinforcement or punishment § Tell me specifically if it is PR, NR, PP, or NP § Must also include a reinforcement schedule Parental punishment is often ineffective. To be effective, punishment must be Reasonable Unpleasant Applied immediately Clearly connected to the unwanted behavior § Often ineffective for at least three reasons: Wrongly applied after a behavior that is actually desirable Leads to negative emotions (fear, anxiety) Fails to offset the reinforcing aspects of the undesired behavior § Reinforcement is better than punishment at shaping desired behavior. Most psychologists believe that physical punishment is especially ineffective. Yet spanking is very common in the United States (75 percent of parents). A recent meta-analysis has shown that spanking is not effective in improving children’s behavior (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016). Spanking is associated with negative outcomes and mental health problems: More aggression and antisocial behavior Lower self-esteem Negative relationships with parents Teaches the child that violence is appropriate Negative punishment is more effective (time-outs, taking away cell phones or Internet access). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WcO48w5Xcvo&t=1s § Behavior modification: the use of operant conditioning techniques to replace unwanted behaviors with desirable behaviors § Token economies: a type of behavior modification involving the opportunity to earn tokens (secondary reinforcers) for completing tasks and loss of tokens for behaving badly § Tokens later traded for objects or privileges § Gives participants sense of control 6.13 There Are Three Ways You Learn by Watching Others 6.14 Biology Influences Observational Learning § We learn mechanical skills, social etiquette, situational anxiety, attitudes about politics and religion, etc. by watching others. § We learn by watching others in these three ways: Observational learning Modeling Vicarious conditioning § Observational learning: the acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior § Examples: safe foods to eat, objects and situations to fear § Powerful adaptive tool § Observation of aggression: Bandura’s Bobo doll study (1961) § Group 1: watched film of adult playing quietly with Bobo, an inflatable doll § Group 2: watched film of adult attacking Bobo § The viewers of aggression were more than twice as likely to play aggressively. § Modeling: the imitation of behavior through observational learning § We are more likely to imitate actions of attractive, high- status models who are similar to ourselves. § Babies frequently show learning by watching and then imitating behaviors and expressions. Vicarious conditioning: learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action Rewarded behavior more imitated Punished behavior less imitated John Watson and Behaviorism Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Habituation Pavlov Unconditioned Stimulus, Conditioned Stimulus, Neutral Stimulus Extinction Systematic Sedensitization Little Albert Reinforcement Schedules Token Economy Alfred Bandura § Create a Operational Conditioning Case Study § Specify the reinforcement or Consequence § Include a reinforcement schedule § This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for Chapter 6 of Psychology in Your Life, Fourth Edition. § For more resources, please visit https://digital.wwnorton.com/psychlife4 Copyright © 2022 W. W. Norton & Company