Chapter 7: Learning Theories PDF

Chapter 7 Learning: Process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior Must be brought about by experience Not change brought about by maturation, illness, drugs, hunger, and such Cognitive psychologists emphasize change in k...

Chapter 7 Learning: Process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior Must be brought about by experience Not change brought about by maturation, illness, drugs, hunger, and such Cognitive psychologists emphasize change in knowledge (internal) Behavioral psychologists emphasize change in behavior (external) Behavioral learning theories: Explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors Ethical questions about application of behavioral theories Goals: Apply strategies to academic learning Punishment—unnecessary/unethical when positive approaches might work as well Must consider impact of a strategy on the individual student Reports of unsatisfactory progress at school may lead to increased abuse of individual student at home Classical Conditioning (1 of 2) Discovered by Pavlov, Russian physiologist, 1920s Observations with dogs First, salivated when being fed Next, learned to associate seeing food with being fed and salivated upon seeing food Finally, began to salivate at hearing Pavlov’s footsteps Experiment with tuning fork to condition dogs to salivate First: Sound the tuning fork (neutral stimulus); no salivation Second: Sound fork, feed dog, dog salivates (contiguous pairing) Many repetitions later: Salivation after tuning fork, before food Turned neutral stimulus (sound) into conditioned stimulus (causing salivation Applying Classical Conditioning Associate positive, pleasant events with learning tasks Create comfortable reading corner to make voluntary reading appealing Help students risk anxiety-producing situations voluntarily and successfully Let fearful student read report to small group while seated, then while standing, then from notes, then to whole class Help students recognize differences and similarities among situations so they can discriminate, generalize appropriately Help anxious students compare college entrance exams to any other achievement tests they have taken Operant Conditioning: Trying new Responses Operants: Voluntary, generally goal-directed behaviors Operant conditioning: Learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents Concept developed by B. F. Skinner, 1953 Classical conditioning accounts for small portion of learned behavior; doesn’t account for acquiring new operant behaviors Behavior sandwiched between two sets of environmental influences (Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence) Antecedents: Events that precede the behavior Consequences: Events that follow it Behavior altered by change in antecedent, consequence, or both Types of Consequences Reinforcements and punishments Consequences strengthen or weaken behavior Reinforcement strengthens; punishment weakens Reinforcement: Use of consequences to strengthen behavior Reinforcer: Event that follows behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again If behavior persists, consequences are reinforcing it Two types of reinforcement: Positive or negative Positive and Negative Reinforcement Positive: Strengthening behavior by presenting (adding) a desired stimulus after the behavior Peers laugh when child falls out of chair; child likes laughter attention and repeats behavior Bad behavior reinforced by teacher’s negative attention Child likes attention, repeats bad behavior, gets more attention Negative: Strengthening behavior by removing (subtracting) an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs Child fears giving report, “gets sick,” escapes giving report Aversive stimulus removed (task of giving report) Strengthens behavior; child repeats behavior of getting sick Punishment Process that weakens or suppresses behavior Presentation punishment: Decreasing behavior by adding an aversive stimulus following the behavior  Removal punishment: Decreasing behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior Distinguish negative reinforcement and punishment Reinforcement increases behavior Punishment suppresses behavior Neuroscience of Reinforcement and Punishment Diverse theories about why reinforcement and punishment work Do reinforcers satisfy needs or reduce tension? Growing knowledge about areas of brain involved with learning new behaviors Parts of the cerebellum are involved in simple reflex learning Other brain parts are involved in learning to avoid painful stimulation Some systems of the brain signal “liking,” others are involved with motivation (how much we “want” something) Brain chemical dopamine and other opiate-like chemicals are involved with liking a reinforcer Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement schedule: Presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response (predictable) Effective when one is learning a new behavior Intermittent reinforcement schedule: Presenting a reinforcer after some but not all responses (effective in maintaining behavior) Interval schedule (fixed or variable): Reinforcement based on length of time between reinforcers Ratio schedule (fixed or variable): Reinforcement based on number of responses between reinforcers Encourage persistence with variable/unpredictable schedules Extinction—disappearance of a learned response Occurs if the usual reinforcer is withheld long enough Antecedents and Behavior Change Antecedents: Events preceding behaviors Stimulus control: Capacity for presence/absence of antecedents to cause behaviors Skinner’s pigeons peck, get food when light is on (not when light is off) Teachers’ use of cues in the classroom Effective instruction delivery: Instructions that are concise, clear, specific, and communicate expected result (Table 7.2 in textbook)  Statements (better than questions), close proximity, eye contact, praise, direct/descriptive instruction, pause for compliance, praise Cueing: Stimulus that “sets up” desired behavior Rather than correcting behaviors after student errors/violations Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis Applied behavior analysis: Application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior Steps in classroom application of applied behavior analysis Clearly specify behavior to be changed and the goal Observe, note current behavior (frequency, causes, surroundings, time of day) Plan specific intervention; use antecedents, consequences, or both Keep track of results and modify plan if necessary A B A B design used in applied behavior analysis research Methods for Encouraging Behaviors Reinforcing with teacher attention Adult attention: Powerful, generally effective reinforcement for children Praise students for good behavior Ignore misbehavior (differential reinforcement) Guidelines for using praise appropriately Clear and systematic; tied directly to appropriate behavior Sincere, not evaluative; praise action/effort, not person Based on individual abilities and limitations; focused on student’s progress, not comparison to others Attributed to effort and ability, not to luck, extra help, easy material Reinforcing to the individual, not used to influence the class Recognition of genuine accomplishment of met goal (not for less) Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle Principle named for David Premack, 1965 States that a more-preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for completing a less-preferred activity Sometimes called Grandma’s rule: First, do what I want you to do, then do what you want Less-preferred behavior must happen first Ideas for reinforcers in classroom application of rule Time to talk, sit with friend, use computer, make a video, play games, test/homework exemption Shaping  Shaping (successive approximations): Reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior Reinforce progress rather than waiting for perfection Especially useful when student cannot perform task to gain reinforcement, but can perform part of task Process involves task analysis (breaking task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills) Provides logical sequence of steps leading toward final goal Teacher sees where student struggles with subskill during sequence and helps student succeed Time-consuming and not practical if success can be attained through simpler cueing Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors Quickly recognize positive behavior in ways that students value When students tackle new material/skills, give plenty of reinforcement After behaviors are established, give reinforcement on unpredictable schedule to encourage persistence Use Premack principle to identify effective reinforcers Use cueing to help establish new behaviors Make sure All students receive some praise, privileges, rewards when they do something well Establish a variety of reinforcers Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences Contingency contract: Between teacher and student specifying what student must do to earn particular reward or privilege Figure 7.2 in textbook offers an example Token reinforcement system: Tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for reward Rewards such as small toys, school supplies, free time Group consequences: Reward/punishment given to whole class for adhering to or violating rules of conduct Good behavior game: Class divided into teams; each team gets demerit points for breaking agreed-upon behavior rules Handling Undesirable Behavior Consider why students disrupt or break rules; address problems When problems persist, use the following possible solutions Negative reinforcement: Use something aversive to get students to achieve goal, then remove aversive stimulus  Positive practice overcorrection: Practicing correct responses immediately after errors Reprimands: Criticisms for misbehavior; rebukes Should be done quietly, privately to be effective Response cost: Punishment by loss of reinforcers Social isolation/time out: Briefly remove disruptive student Controversial; Follow guidelines by Dadds and Tully, 2019 Some Cautions About Punishment Can have social-emotional and motivational consequences Studies show ineffectiveness of punishment; physical punishment is particularly ineffective and harmful Two-pronged goal: Carry out punishment and suppress undesirable behavior; make clear what student should do instead Guidelines for using punishment Structure situation to use negative reinforcement, not punishment Keep it mild, brief; pair it with doing the right thing Be consistent in application of punishment Focus on students’ actions, not on their personal qualities Adapt the punishment to the infraction; ignore minor misbehaviors Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment General reasons students act out Receive attention, gain desired item/activity or sensory stimulation Escape attention, escape demanding/boring task, escape painful or disturbing sensory stimulation Functional behavioral assessment (F B A) tries to discover “why” Obtain information about antecedents, behaviors, and consequences to identify the reason/function of the behavior Map the A-B-C s of the situation Analyze to determine what functions the behavior serves F B A observation guide (Figure 7.4 in textbook): List time, antecedent event, exact behavior, and consequences; analyze Reaching Every Student: Positive Behavior Supports Interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student Based on functional behavioral assessment Examples: Teach student to ask for help or request a break Precorrection: Tool for P B S (preventive strategy) Identify context for student’s misbehavior Specify alternative expected behavior  Modify situation to make problem behavior unlikely Rehearse expected positive behaviors; reinforce P B S used successfully in school-wide programs Three-tier prevention and intervention approach Self-Management Student responsible for learning, changing own behavior Goal setting Student sets specific goals, makes them public (goals for self-direction, problem solving, critical thinking, creativity, and more) Monitoring and evaluating progress Student often monitors own progress toward goal Student maintains chart, checklist, other record of frequency or duration of behaviors in question Student self-evaluates; judges quality of own progress; self-corrects or improves work; compares improvements to the standards again Self-reinforcement : Student controlling own reinforcers Denies self a reward until goal is met; then reinforces with reward CHAPTER 8 Elements of the Cognitive Perspective Cognitive view of learning: Views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge Focus: Scientific study of memory and cognition How people perceive, remember, think Emphasis on construction of knowledge Cognitive science: Interdisciplinary study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge creation, and the brain The Brain and Cognitive Learning Brain continues to change throughout life All learning changes your brain Learning shapes your intellectual capabilities Observing and visualizing support learning Mirror systems of brain fire both during perception of an action and when actually performing the action Brain rehearses action it sees another person perform Basis of memory: Neurons changing in response to experiences Hippocampus: Critical for learning and highly affected by learning The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition Knowledge and knowing—outcomes of learning Basis for constructing future learning; conceptual growth Domain-specific knowledge: Information useful in a particular situation or that applies mainly to one specific topic General knowledge: Information useful in many different kinds of tasks; applies to many situations Both domain-specific and general knowledge are required for most learning in school Declarative, Procedural, and Self-Regulatory Knowledge Declarative: Verbal information; facts; knowledge that can be declared through words and symbol systems “Knowing that” something is the case Procedural: Applied knowledge; must be demonstrated “Knowing how” to do something (not defining/describing it) Self-regulatory or conditional: Knowing how to manage your learning (can be specific to a subject area or general) How/when to use specific declarative or procedural knowledge Cognitive Views of Memory Information processing: Human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information Early information processing views of memory Linear computer model: Input, process, store, retrieve, respond Current information processing view Complex but coordinated system of multiple memory components interacting rapidly, simultaneously Emphasis on role of working memory, attention, and interactions among elements of the system Figure 8.1 in textbook Sensory Memory System that holds sensory information very briefly Initial processing of environmental stimuli into perceptions—seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, feeling Capacity, duration, and contents of sensory memory Very large capacity Very short duration, less than three seconds Time to select and organize the information for further processing Content resembles sensations from original stimulus  Auditory sensations coded as sound patterns, visual sensations coded as images Perception Interpretation of sensory information Process of detecting stimulus, assigning meaning to it Bottom-up, data driven processing: Perceiving based on noticing separate defining features, assembling into a recognizable pattern First, feature analysis; then, assigned meaning Gestalt (German for “pattern” or “whole”): Tendency to organize sensory perceptions into coherent wholes Top-down, conceptually driven processing: Use context and what we already know to make sense of information The Role of Attention Attention: Focus on a stimulus Reticular activating system filters incoming stimuli Stimulus-driven attention: Some stimulus grabs our attention Goal-directed attention: Intentional We attend selected stimuli, ignore others Guided by what we know, need to know, and what’s happening Automaticity: Perform learned tasks without much mental effort Multitasking: Effectiveness based on complexity of tasks Problem trying to do two complex tasks simultaneously, such as talking on phone and driving Attention and Teaching Paying attention—first step in conscious learning Type of task determines level of attention required for processing the information Resource-limited tasks: Performance improves with allocation of more attention Data-limited tasks: Successful processing depends on amount/quality of data available Automated tasks: Processing happens without much attention Factors in classroom influence student attention Easier to gain attention than to maintain attention Gaining and Maintaining Attention Use signals, visual and auditory Avoid distracting behaviors; use voice variations Reach out rather than call out to get child’s attention Walk to child, use child’s name, look into child’s eyes  Make sure purpose of lesson/task is clear to students Present goals/objectives on board/screen; discuss Explain reasons for learning; tie to previous learning Incorporate variety, curiosity, surprise; shift sensory channels Ask questions, provide frames for answering Discuss strategies for learning; provide self-check guides Working Memory Workbench” of the memory system Interface that provides temporary holding and processing of information to accomplish complex cognitive tasks Distinction between short-term memory and working memory Short-term: Just storage; holds info about 20 seconds Working: Both temporary holding and active processing Short-term: Component of memory system that holds information for about 20 seconds Very limited capacity described as “Magic 7” plus or minus 2 Generally holds 5-to-9 separate bits of new information A Model of Working Memory: Four Parts Central executive system: Responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources (pushes out irrelevant thoughts) Phonological loop: Speech- and sound-related system for holding and rehearsing words/sounds in short-term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds Keeps it active; holds it “in the loop” for processing Visuospatial sketchpad: Holding system for visual, tactile, spatial information (individual differences in capacity) Episodic buffer: Process that brings together/integrates information from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory Creates complex memories with sound, action, images Cognitive Load Cognitive load: Volume of cognitive resources necessary to complete a task Two (or three) kinds of cognitive load Intrinsic: Resources required by the task itself; unavoidable/essential and productive Extraneous: Required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task (interruptions and such); avoidable and unproductive Germane resources (third factor): Redistribute working memory resources away from extraneous activities, toward learning Role of good instructional design and good teaching—to manage intrinsic load, reduce extraneous load, optimize germane resources Retaining Information in Working Memory Ways to keep information activated and held in working memory Maintenance rehearsal: Repeat information to yourself (in phonological loop or visuospatial sketchpad) Elaborative rehearsal: Associate information with something else you already know; helps create long-term memories Levels/depth of processing theory: Recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed, analyzed, connected Chunking: Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units to retain the information Forgetting: Lose information through interference, decay New information interferes with old; old is lost from working memory Memories that aren’t activated decay, weaken Individual Differences in Working Memory Developmental differences Components of working memory in place by age 4 Working memory improves over the school years Visual/spatial memory develops earlier Three basic aspects of memory improve over time: Memory span, processing efficiency, processing speed Individual differences in working memory span, attention control In young children, growth in theses areas predicts emergent literacy and number skills Related to fluid intelligence and giftedness in math and language and academic achievement in math, reading, language Working memory: Viewed by some as part of long-term memory Long-Term Memory Permanent store of knowledge (Figure 8.4 in textbook) Duration: Long-term; can be permanent Capacity: Unlimited Access: Requires time/effort; not immediate Two kinds associated with different parts of the brain Explicit: Can be recalled, consciously considered Declarative memory; involves hippocampus in the brain Implicit: Unconscious recall; influences behavior or thought without our awareness Contents of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative) Memories (1 of 2)  Two kinds of explicit memories: Semantic (based on meaning) or episodic (based on sequence of events we have experienced) Semantic: Memory for meaning; words, facts, theories, concepts Stored as propositions, images, concepts, schemas Propositions stored in networks of interconnected concepts Images stored as physical attributes and spatial structure of information Dual coding theory: Stored as visual images, verbal units, or both Concepts stored as mental representations to group things in categories Prototypes, exemplars, theory-based categories Teach concepts using prototypes and concrete and abstract examples Schemas: Basic structures that organize information; concepts (Figure 8.5) Story grammar: Typical structure for a category of stories Contents of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative) Memories (2 of 2) Episodic: Long-term memory for information tied to a particular time and place, especially memory of the events in a person’s life Keeps track of the order of things May be intentionally recalled or triggered by a smell, sight, sound, etc. Different from semantic memories Usually can’t describe acquiring a semantic memory Easily recall time/place of episodic memory Flashbulb memories: Clear, vivid memories of emotionally important events in your life Subject to some inaccuracies as we reconstruct episodic memories Contents of Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memories Three kinds of implicit (unconscious) long-term memories Classical conditioning effects: Conditioned emotional reaction Example: Feel anxious taking a test Procedural memory: Memory of skills, habits, how to perform tasks Scripts: Schema for sequence of steps in a common event such as ordering pizza Productions: What to do under certain conditions; become automatic with practice Priming: Out-of-awareness process of activating a concept in long-term memory (such as word associations) Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory Long-term memory—like a huge cabinet full of tools (skills, procedures), supplies (knowledge, concepts, schemas) Ready to be brought to workbench (working memory) Attention = doorway to access the cabinet and workbench  Spreading activation: Retrieval of pieces of information based on their relatedness to one another Retrieving one bit of info activates recall of associated info Reconstruction: Recreating info by using memories, expectations, logic, and existing knowledge Cognitive tool, problem-solving process Forgetting: Info appears lost from time decay and interference Retention strategies: Review, mastery learning, and more Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory Three individual difference factors affecting long-term memory Knowledge level The more you know, the easier it is to know more Develop expert understanding and recall in a domain with continuous knowledge and interest in the domain Effective strategy use Develop better strategies for remembering and retrieving Ability to control attention Focused attention results in more efficient learning Teaching for Long-lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications Elements of processing that improve learning: 1. Elaboration: Extend meaning, connect new info to existing knowledge (easier to recall later); a form of rehearsal 2. Organization (ordered, logical network of relations): Arrange, categorize info; chunk complex info; place a concept in a structure 3. Imagery: Use dual coding (visual and verbal material); manage cognitive load; build on relevant info and generate connections 4. Context: Recall context in which info was learned to activate memory of info (a kind of priming) 5. Desirable difficulty: The more effort required to remember something, the better you will learn and the stronger the memory will be 6. Effective practice: Practice retrieving info; mix up practice Reaching Every Student: Make It Meaningful Features of meaningful lessons Vocabulary that makes sense to students, organization, connections between lesson elements, linking new to old information Mnemonics: Techniques for remembering (creating meaning) Loci method: Associate items with specific places Acronym: Form new word with first letter of each word in a list May also form phrase with first letter of each word/item in a list  Chain mnemonics: Connect one item in a series with next item Keyword: Associate new word with similar-sounding cue word Rote memorization: Recall info (may not understand the meaning) If You Have to Memorize… Necessary and effective at times Tips and strategies Serial-position effect: Tendency to forget items in middle of a list Part learning: Break list of items into shorter lists Distributed practice: Memorize in brief periods with rest intervals Massed practice: Memorize for a single extended period (less effective than distributed practice) Use distributed learning in classes to improve learning, remembering Review important info every few weeks Re-expose students to important info weeks after first exposure Give cumulative exams/quizzes to encourage review Lessons for Teachers: Declarative Knowledge 1. Importance of connections -To what student already knows -To pictures and words that support understanding -To different specific examples of concepts -To the context where info was first learned 2. Power of deep processing By elaborating new information By forming images By reviewing over time By dealing with difficulty and persisting By questioning Development of Procedural Knowledge Expert’s declarative knowledge is proceduralized, automatic Automated basic skills—three stages of development 1. Cognitive: When we are first learning 2. Associative: Identify/eliminate errors; combine steps 3. Autonomous: Carry out whole procedure with little attention  Two critical factors in becoming expert learners a. Prerequisite knowledge; practice with feedback Domain-specific strategies: Consciously applied (not automatic) skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem b. Provide opportunities for practice in many different situations CHAPTER 9 Metacognition Knowledge about our own thinking processes and how to control them, along with the skills to regulate your thinking Involves all three kinds of knowledge and their strategic application: Declarative, procedural, self-regulatory Three essential metacognitive skills: Planning, monitoring, evaluating Examples: Knowing when to skim, when to read carefully, where to focus attention, devising/revising a plan, when to use which strategies Individual differences Some differences relate to age or maturation Some differences relate to biology or learning experiences Often difficult, yet very important, for children with learning disabilities Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition Younger students “looking in” on their own thinking Setting goals, planning, evaluating achievements, self-reflection Using questions as a guide or checklist Two questions used successfully with two graders in language arts What did you learn about yourself as reader/writer today? What did you learn that you can do again and again? K W L: Strategy to guide reading and inquiry (encourages students to “look within,” identify what they bring to learning situation) K: What do I already know about this subject? W: What do I want to know? L: At the end of reading/inquiry, what did I learn? Metacognitive Development for Secondary and College Students Incorporate metacognitive questions into lessons Encourage three main metacognitive skills; monitoring, evaluating, then planning applications for the next task Use metacognitive talk in whole class lessons Categories of student personal knowledge: “Raise your hand if you are not sure”  Monitoring: “Explain to us what you are doing right now” Evaluating: “Is that true?” See other kinds of metacognitive talk in Table 9.1 in textbook Learning Strategies Students usually discover repetition and rote learning on their own What is involved in learning to learn? Be cognitively engaged: Focus attention on relevant aspects of material Invest effort: Make connections; elaborate, invent, organize, reorganize, and practice retrieving to process deeply Regulate and monitor your own learning: Use metacognition; keep track of what is making sense Teach learning strategies that go beyond repetition and memorization Being Strategic About Learning Learning strategies: Special kind of procedural knowledge—knowing how to approach learning tasks Includes cognitive, metacognitive, and behavioral strategies Principles of teaching learning strategies (what students need) Domain-specific strategies plus general strategies Self-regulatory strategies (when, why to use a strategy) Motivation to use the strategies Belief that they can learn new strategies, that effort pays off Background knowledge in the area of study before being able to use the strategies effectively Learning Strategies to Teach Students Focus attention; decide what is important; identify main idea, key concepts (avoiding focus on “seductive details”) Create summaries: Topic sentences for paragraphs, big ideas, support information, no unnecessary details Underline/highlight key points only; make notes in your own words, reorganizing and making connections Take notes during lectures to focus attention, hold information in working memory, construct meaning, return and review Difficult for students with more limited working memory Use note-taking forms strategically (such as Cornell notes format) Visual Tools for Organizing Concept map: Graphical tool for organizing and representing knowledge and relationships within a field or on a topic Benefits students derive from using concept mapping  Improves recall of information Serves as a guide for studying Effective form or practice Cmaps, downloadable tools for creating concept maps Other ways to visualize relationships among concepts Venn diagrams: Show how ideas/concepts overlap Time lines: Organize information in a sequence Drawing: Creating mental models of what is learned Retrieval Practice: Powerful But Underused Retrieval practice, also called testing effect or active retrieval Practicing by retrieving information from memory instead of rereading or restudying How to benefit from this powerful strategy List key ideas, draw concept maps, explain to a friend, teach to another, complete K W L worksheet, take self-test, and more Effectiveness of retrieval practice Effect evident for young children through college students More effective than rereading and restudying Helps memories consolidate in the brain Strengthens neural pathways so knowledge is easier to find later Reading Strategies Use direct teaching, explanation, modeling, and practice with feedback to teach these strategies P A R S: four-step reading strategy P—Preview headings, subheadings, visual aids A—Ask yourself questions that relate to the main ideas R—Read and try to find answers to your questions S—Summarize main ideas in your own words C A P S strategy: Characters, Aim of story, Problem, Solution Following steps increases awareness of organization of material Involves distributed practice, studying a section at a time Answering questions encourages deep processing Applying Learning Strategies Production deficiency: When students learn problem-solving strategies but fail to apply them when they could/should Conditions that help students apply strategies Appropriate tasks: Teachers require understanding, not just memorization Valuing learning: Students care about learning, believe strategies help them understand and apply  Effort and efficacy: Believe strategies are worth the effort; have background knowledge to succeed with strategies Reaching Every Student: Teaching How to Learn Guidelines for teaching any metacognitive strategy Teach intensively, a few strategies at a time Model and explain new strategies; model again as needed Explain where/when to use strategy Provide practice using strategy with appropriate tasks Encourage self-monitoring with use of strategies Increase motivation to use strategies by increasing their awareness that they are acquiring valuable skills Emphasize reflective processing Order for developing learning strategies: First, skills for surface-level knowledge; then skills for retrieval; finally, skills for deep learning Problem Solving Problem: Any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal and must find a means to do so Problem solving: Creating new solutions for problems General and specific problem-solving strategies General strategies are used in many areas Domain-specific expert knowledge leads to more automatic domain-specific (less general) problem solving First step: Identify the problem Solvable problems often become opportunities Identifying: Problem Finding Problem identification Critical first step in problem solving Not always straightforward Common error to “leap” to naming first problem that comes to mind Experts in a field carefully consider the nature of the problem Solvable problems often present opportunities Successful inventions, such as ballpoint pen and many more Defining Goals and Representing the Problem Focus attention on relevant information Ignore irrelevant details that might mislead, confuse Understand meaning of words, factual information Make language substitutions for students as needed Understand the whole problem; form a conceptual model  Translation: Your interpretation of problem Be certain what a problem is asking; use proper schema to represent the problem Problem areas: Using wrong schema, overlooking critical information, using irrelevant information Translation and Schema Training Directly teach necessary schemas for domain-specific problem solving Use demonstration, modeling, “think-alouds,” many different examples Use worked examples that reflect all stages of problem solving Lower cognitive load required during learning Critical component: Require students to create self-explanations Compare different examples; use them to solve new problems Use embodied cognition and observational learning Represent problems with pictures, symbols, graphs Schema-driven problem solving—recognize problem as disguised version of an old problem Searching for Possible Solution Strategies Two general kinds of procedures: Algorithmic and heuristic Algorithm: Step-by-step procedure for solving problem; prescription for solutions (usually domain specific) Heuristic: General strategy used in attempting to solve problems Means-ends analysis: A goal is divided into subgoals; figure out means for solving each Working-backward strategy starts with goal and moves backward to solve problem; also a good way to set intermediate deadlines Analogical thinking looks for solutions to situations similar to the one you currently face Verbalization puts problem-solving plan and its logic into words Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back After representing problem and exploring possible solutions Select a solution and anticipate the consequences Implement the solution Evaluate results Check for evidence that confirms or contradicts solution In math, use routines to check your answer Estimate your answer; see if solution matches estimation Especially important when students rely on calculators or computers Factors That Hinder Problem Solving Functional fixedness: Inability to use objects/tools in new ways; Response set: Rigidity; tendency to respond in most familiar way Problems with heuristics (leading to bad decisions/judgments) Representativeness heuristic: Automatically applying a heuristic based on our prototypes/stereotypes Availability heuristic: Making judgments based on what’s available in our memory, assuming it’s common Belief perseverance: Tendency to hold to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence Confirmation bias: Tendency to seek information that confirms our choices/beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming evidence Overconfidence may result from automatic use of heuristics Applying Problem Solving Ask students if they are sure they understand the problem Distinguish relevant/irrelevant info; visualize the problem Encourage viewing problem from different angles Practice taking and defending different points of view Let students think, solve; don’t hand them solutions Give explicit instruction for complex problems Help students self-monitor and reflect on problem-solving process A list showing steps, prompts, modeling how to monitor the process Teach heuristics: Use analogies and “working backward” strategies Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving Experts know what is important, where to focus attention Perceive large, meaningful patterns; not focused on details Recognize underlying principles, represent problems quickly Acquire great store of productions, great domain knowledge Engage in deliberate practice countless times; develop vast procedural knowledge Plan and analyze problem, draw diagram, break into subproblems Plan the whole solution; monitor their progress Becoming an Expert Student Be clear about your goals in studying Make sure you have necessary declarative knowledge to understand new information Find out what type of test will be given; study with that in mind Be familiar with organization of materials to be learned  Know your own cognitive skills and use them deliberately Study the right information in the right way Monitor your comprehension and manage your time Critical Thinking and Argumentation Critical thinking: Evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, evidence, and solution Critical thinking model by Paul and Elder Apply the intellectual standards to the elements of reasoning to develop intellectual traits Three elements for teaching critical thinking: Dialogue, authentic instruction, mentorship; follow up with additional practice Many critical thinking skills are specific to a particular subject Should be taught along with the subject, especially if you use the right materials Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving? Point: Problem solving, critical thinking should be taught It relates to college G P A and to reading comprehension Attending college improves general critical thinking skills Counterpoint: Critical thinking and problem-solving skills don’t transfer Studies show lack of evidence of effectiveness of teaching General critical thinking skills tend to develop on their own Key Point: Teachers can teach both subject-matter content and strategies for learning at the same time Thinking Critically About Online Sources Learning with multiple sources can be powerful Critical thinking skills of evaluating online resources are critical Who is the author? What is the motivation of the author? Where is the information published? (trustworthy website?) When was it published? Is the information accurate? Students benefit from extra training in evaluating sources Argumentation Process of debating a claim with someone else Two styles: Disputative (debate) and deliberative  Disputative: Support claims with evidence; refute opponent’s claims with evidence (good approach for learning to argue) Goal: Convince opponent to switch sides; “Who is right?” Requires metacognitive knowledge and skills for argumentation Deliberative: Compare, contrast, evaluate alternatives; arrive at constructive conclusion (good approach for learning subject matter) Goal: Collaborate to conclude, “Which idea is right?” Six practices to scaffold students’ skill in argument from evidence Ask, press, link, claim/explain, co-construct, critique Teaching for Transfer Transfer: Influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive uses of cognitive tools and motivations Many views of transfer Automatic, direct use of skills in everyday applications Benefits from practice in different situations Thoughtful transfer to new situations (arrive at creative solutions to problems) Involves mindful abstraction (in the initial learning stage) and then reusing or applying what was learned Teaching for Positive Transfer Problem: Situated learning tied to one situation, not transferred What is worth learning? Specific transfer of basic skills (reading, writing, speaking) Transfer of principles, attitudes, learning strategies, self-motivation, time management, problem solving Lessons for teachers: Supporting transfer Overlearning: Practice a skill past the point of mastery Actively involve students; create authentic learning environments Use warm-up activities that practice prior knowledge Three stages in developing strategic transfer: Acquisition, retention, transfer Promoting Transfer Keep families informed about their child’s curriculum so they can support learning Give families ideas for how they might encourage their children to practice, extend, or apply learning from school Show connections between learning in school and life outside school Make families partners in practicing learning strategies Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge Characteristics of robust knowledge  Deep: Recognizes underlying principles, key features Connected: Links separate bits of information Coherent: Consistent; detects inconsistencies Five strategies that can be incorporated into teaching approaches Practice: Provide deliberate practice; have clear criteria for excellence Worked examples: Interleave/alternate with practice problems Analogies: Link key features in problems to underlying principles Integrating multiple texts: Teach students to critically integrate information from different sources Self-explanations: More valuable than hearing teacher explanations