Southern Luzon State University GEC08 - Science, Technology, and Society PDF

Southern Luzon State University COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING BATCH 2027 Science, Technology, and Society GEC08 - MIDTERM BSCPE I - GF | 1st SEMESTER | SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY VII. ISAAC NEWTON...

Southern Luzon State University COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING BATCH 2027 Science, Technology, and Society GEC08 - MIDTERM BSCPE I - GF | 1st SEMESTER | SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY VII. ISAAC NEWTON 1. Background COURSE OUTLINE 2. Theories 3. The Apple Story I. MODERN PERIOD 4. Scientific Discoveries II. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION a. Law of Universal Gravitation 1. Geocentric Theory of the Universe b. Laws of Motion 2. Heliocentric Theory of the Universe 5. Application of Law of Universal Gravitation and Laws 3. Geo-Heliocentric Model of Motion in Planetary Motion 4. Laws of Planetary Motion 6. Other Information a. Law of Ellipses VIII. FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION b. Law of Equal Areas 1. Beginning c. Law of Harmonies 2. The First Industrial Revolution 5. Law of Universal Gravitation 3. Reasons why the Industrial Revolution began in 6. Laws of Motion Great Britain a. Law of Inertia 4. Before the Industrial Revolution in Britain b. Law of Acceleration c. Laws of Motions 5. During the Industrial Revolution in Britain III. NICHOLAUS COPERNICUS 6. Inventions and Inventors 1. Education a. Spinning and Weaving 2. Administrative and Medical Roles i. Spinning Jenny 3. Copernicus’ Astronomical Work ii. Water Frame a. Evolution of Planetary Models iii. Spinning Mule b. Heliocentric b. Steam Engine c. The Commentariolus i. Watt’s Steam Engine d. The Seven Postulates ii. Steam Locomotive e. Narratio Prima iii. Steamboats and Steamships f. “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” c. Harnessing Electricity g. Copernicus’s Revolutionary Ideas Reorganized i. Electric Generators and Electric Motors the Heavens IV. TYCHO BRAHE ii. Electric Railways and Tramways 1. Life iii. The Incandescent Lamp 2. Education d. Telegraph and Telephone 3. Works of Contributions i. Telegraph a. Tycho System ii. Telephone b. De Nova Stella e. Internal-Combustion Engine and Automobile c. Uribanorg i. The Internal-Combustion Engine 4. Brahe’s Instruments ii. The Automobile d. Brass Azimuthal Quadrant e. The Great Globe f. Armillary Sphere REFERENCE g. Triangular Sextant h. Triangular Sextant Module and PPT i. Revolving Wooden Quadrant j. Revolving Steel Quadrant MODERN PERIOD k. Uraniborg Press 4. Impact of his Works and Contributions  The Early Modern Period (1450 - 1750) V. JOHANNES KEPLER o Lead to the widespread of knowledge 1. Life and Education in European Society 2. Works and Contributions  Increased literacy a. The Law of Ellipses b. The Law of Equal Ares o Characterized by: c. The Law of Harmonies  Improved transportation d. The Foundation of Modern Optics  Educational reform e. The Keplerian Telescope  Scientific inquiry f. The Heliocentric Model g. Astronomia Nova  The Late Modern Period (1789 to 1945) h. Harmonice Mundi o Sparkled by Industrial Revolution 3. Impact of his Works and Contibutions o Characterized by: VI. GALILEO GALILEI  Technical innovations 1. Life 2. Titles  Secular politics 3. Education  Government was 4. Why does he love math? separated from religion 5. Inventions and Innovations 6. Contribution in Astronomy  Urbanization 7. Books  The Post Modern Period (1950 to present) 8. His Conflict with the Catholic Church o Marked with skepticism, self- consciousness, celebration of  jtmh differences and digitalization of 2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of medieval culture experimental methods for their work and so felt the  Lasted from the end of the Middle Ages to the need to devise new methods (some of which we use today). middle of the 20th century 3. Academics had access to a legacy of European,  It also referred to as the post-medieval period. Greek, and Middle Eastern scientific philosophy  The period of European history between the end that they could use as a starting point (either by of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the disproving or building on the theorems). Industrial Revolution  Late 15th century to the late 18th century  Among the formally educated, if not among the general  Marked by important changes in ideas, population, traditional science was transformed by the new heliocentric, mechanistic, and society, religion, economics and politics. mathematical conceptions of Copernicus, Kepler,  During the early modern period, which included Galileo, and Newton. what some have labeled the Scientific  Historians of science are increasingly reluctant to Revolution, the social and intellectual barriers describe these changes as a revolution, since this that divided the mechanical arts from what implies too sudden and complete an overthrow of the was sometimes being labeled science earlier model. continued to be overcome.  Aristotle’s authority gave way very slowly, and o Building on inventions, such as the only the first of the great scientists mentioned printing press, gunpowder, and new above did his work in the period under navigational techniques that had consideration.  Still, the Renaissance made some important originated in the late Middle Ages, the contributions toward the process of paradigm shift, as early modern period saw a dramatic the 20th-century historian of science. expansion of world trade and  Thomas Kuhn called major innovations in science. commercial activity that some have Publication of Copernicus’s heliocentric theory in 1543 labeled a commercial revolution. is a good beginning point for the Scientific Revolution. Throughout the West, modern science SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION began to take shape in many ways.  16th and 17th centuries  Extreme change in scientific thought GEOCENTRIC THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE Aristotle o Paradigm shift  Earth is the center of the universe; and is o Replaced the Greek views of Science stationary.  Dominated for almost 2000  The Sun, Moon, stars and other planets revolve years around the Earth in circular orbits at a constant  Began in Astronomy fo speed.  Propounded by Copernicus  He believed that objects in space are unchanging and  It was a series of events that marked the move in perfect circles (perfect shape). emergence of modern science during the early  The sun is seen rising in east and setting in the modern period, when developments in west every day. mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology  The stars and moon appear only during the night (including human anatomy) and chemistry time and disappear during the day time. transformed the views of society about Ptolemy nature.  It is a drastic change in scientific thought that took place during the 16th and 17th centuries.  A new view of nature emerged during the Scientific Revolution, replacing the Greek view that had dominated science for almost 2,000 years. Science became an autonomous discipline, distinct from both philosophies and technology, and it came to be regarded as having utilitarian goals.  By the end of this period, it may not be too much to say that science had replaced Christianity  Resolved the problem that the planets seem to as the focal point of European civilization. move backward (retrograde motion)  He explained that the planet moved in a small circle Reasons for the Occurrence of the Change to the Medieval (epicycle) while moving a deferent around the Earth Idea of Science o Epicycle – a small circle, around which a 1. Seventeenth century scientists and philosophers planet was thought to revolve were able to collaborate with members of the o Deferent – the main circle that defines the mathematical and astronomical communities to planet’s orbit effect advances in all fields.  The sun and stars are moving around the planet motion. 2 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh Why Geocentric Theory of the Universe was accepted for The amount of mercury was not enough to about 2000 years? heal him.  The proponent of the theory, Aristotle, was a well-  Recently, some archeologists opened his skeleton to known and respected philosopher, scientist. reveal the real cause of his death.  No other theory about the behavior of heavenly o Fatal combination of obesity, diabetes, bodies exists during that time. and alcoholism.  Logically thinking about the ideas of Geocentric Theory, the people believed to Aristotle GEO-HELIOCENTRIC MODEL  Christianity taught that God placed the Earth at the  Tychonic System center of the universe.  The Sun and Moon revolve around the planet Earth.  All other planets except the Earth, revolve around HELIOCENTRIC THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE the sun. Nicholaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543) o He combined the idea of geocentrism and heliocentrism. Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630)  He worked as an assistant to Tycho Brahe; became suspect to Brahe’s death.  He supported the idea of Copernicus that the center of the universe is the Sun.  He used Brahe’s astronomical data in formulating the first two laws of planetary motion. LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION  He believed that the sun is the center of the universe.  The planets, including the Earth, revolve around the sun in circular orbit.  The moon circles around the Earth.  The Earth’s rotation on its own axis accounts for the apparent rotation of the stars.  Each year represents one orbit of the Earth around the sun. Law of Ellipses  The sun did not move, nor did the stars. o It states that all planets move about the Sun  The apparent retrograde motion is the perspective in elliptical orbit having the sun as one of effect caused when the Earth passes over a slower the foci. moving outer planet that appears the planet to be moving backwards.  All of his ideas about heliocentrism was written in his book “De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres)” o It was not published until a year before he died  He feared that it could lead to condemnation from the church.  Ellipse with eccentricity (Property of ellipse)  Perhaps he was worried that his o Measures how flattened an ellipse is theory presented some scientific compared to a circle flaws. 𝑏2  He dies on his bed with a copy of the book in his hand. o 𝑒 = √1 − 𝑎2 Tycho Brahe  He studied and made his observation about the motion of heavenly bodies in his own invented astronomical instruments in an island where he built his astronomical observatory called “Uraniborg.”  He hired Johannes Kepler as his assistant. o But kept all astronomical observations as a secret from Kepler. o Brahe only allowed Kepler to study about Mars, but he never allowed Kepler to learn about his astronomical findings and observation.  Brahe died at age of 54 due to speculations of mercury poisoning. o Two years after his death, it was found out that mercury poisoning did not heal him. 3 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh Law of Equal Areas  First to observed the moon through telescope  The moon was mountainous and rough. o Discovered the four moons circling Jupiter and it was named after him (Galilean Moons)  Io  named after the lover of Zeus  Innermost Moon of Jupiter  3,642 km in diameter  Europa  An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of the planet will sweep out equal areas in  Named after mythical equal intervals of time. Queen of Crete  A1 = A2 = A3 (Distance of Point A to B, C to D and E to F)  Had the smoothest  t1 = t2 = t3 (Time travel distance of Point A to B, C to D and E to F) surface in the Solar  V1 > V2 > V3 (speed of Point A to B, C to D and E to F) System o When a planet is closer to the sun, the greater  3121.6 km in diameter the speed, and vice versa.  Smallest moon  Aphelion – Planets are farther from the sun  Ganymede o Earth is about 152 million km from the sun  5262.4 km in diameter o Speed = 29.3 km/s  Largest Moon in the  Perihelion – Planets are closer to the sun Solar System o Earth is about 147 million km from the sun  Larger than Mercury o Speed = 30.28 km/s  Callisto  Farthest Galilean Moon Law of Harmonies  4820.6 km in diameter  The ratio of the squares of the periods (T) of any  Second largest of the two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of Galilean’s Moons their average distances (R) from the sun.  Third largest moon in the o Period (T) – time it takes for the planet to Solar System complete one (1) revolution as it revolves o First telescope inventor: Hans Lippershey around the sun  Telescope magnification was 3x o Earth takes 365 days to complete one (1) only. revolution as it revolves around the sun.  He discovered the rings of Saturn, phases of Venus o Mercury takes 88 days to complete one (1) and spots on the sun. revolution as it revolves around the sun.  His observation strengthens his belief to o Saturn takes 10, 759 days to complete one Copernicus’ Theory (1) revolution as it revolves around the sun.  As he supported the idea of Heliocentrism, he was  There is a relationship between the periods of the accused with heresy in 1616. planet and its distance from the sun (Directly o He had been forgiven for defending his proportional) beliefs. o In symbols, 𝑻𝟐 𝒂𝑹𝟑 or 𝑻𝟐 𝒌𝑹𝟑 o He was prohibited from writing his own o where: beliefs that is against the church’s beliefs. T = Period  Published his book in 1632 stating that the Earth a = alpha revolves around the Sun R = distance  In 1633, chief inquisitor Father Vincenzo Maculano da Firenzuola, appointed by Pope Urban VIII, began the inquisition of Galileo Galilei. o Found guilty of heresy and was sentenced to death o However, due to his old age, he was house- arrested instead. o Died on January 8, 1642  In 20th century, several popes acknowledged the 𝑹𝟑𝟐 𝑻𝟐𝟏  Calculating the period of a planet: 𝑻𝟐 = √ great work of Galileo. 𝑹𝟑𝟏  In 1992, Pope John Paull II expressed regret about 𝑹𝟑𝟐 𝑻𝟐𝟐  Calculating the distance of a planet: 𝑹𝟐 = √ how the Galileo affair was handled. 𝑻𝟐𝟏 LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) Isaac Newton (1642 - 1721)  Italian astronomer  It effectively removed the last doubts about the  Born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa, Italy validity of the heliocentric model.  Improved and built a telescope in 1609 with increased  It explained the movements of planets around the magnification to 8x and later refined 20x. sun in our Solar System. o He used his improved telescope in observing  It states that two objects attract each other with a the sky. force of gravitational attraction that is proportional 4 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. 𝒎 𝒎 𝒎 𝒎  In symbols, 𝑭𝒈 𝒂 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 or 𝑭𝒈 = 𝑮 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 a1 a2 𝒓 𝒓  Explanation: o The greater force is exerted to a planet (closer to the sun), the greater the acceleration. o The lesser force is exerted to a planet (farther from the sun), the lesser the acceleration.  Explanation: o m1 and m2 is more massive, therefore the Law of Interaction force of attraction is greater than m3 and 4  If the first object exerts a force on the second, the second object exerts the same force on the first but the LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION opposite direction. Law of Inertia  It states that an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion continues to move at a constant velocity unless it is acted upon by a net force.  Planet is moving in an ellipse o There must be some “force” acting upon the planet.  Explanation: o The force exerted by the Earth towards the Sun is equal to the force exerted by the Sun towards the Earth  Explanation: o The closer the position of a planet towards the Sun, the greater the force of gravity. o The closer the position of a planet towards  𝐹𝐸1 > 𝐹𝐸2 the Sun, the greater the force of gravity.  Explanation: o The farther the position towards the Sun, o 𝐹𝑔1 = 𝐹𝐸1 and 𝐹𝑔2 = 𝐹𝐸2 the slower the speed. o The closer the position towards the Sun, the “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders if greater the speed. the Giants.” – Isaac Newton Law of Acceleration  Died of March 31, 1727 at the age of 85  It states that the acceleration caused by the net force is directly proportional to the net force and inversely NICHOLAUS COPERNICUS proportional to the mass of an object.  Mikolaj Kopernik ∑𝐹  In symbols, 𝑎𝑎  Born on February 19, 1473, in Torun, Royal Prussia 𝑚  Explanation:  The founding “Father of Modern Astronomy” o If the net force is doubled, the acceleration  Youngest of four children. will also be doubled, if the mass is kept  Father: Nicolaus Copernicus Sr., was a well-to-do constant. (directly proportional) merchant o If the mass is doubled, the acceleration  Polish astronomer and mathematician will decrease by one half, if the net force is  First modern European scientist to propose the kept constant. (inversely proportional) Heliocentric Theory  Mathematical expression: ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 5 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh Lucas Watzenrode  Equant concept allowed for non-uniform motion,  Maternal Uncle of Nicolaus Copernicus breaking with ancient astronomy assumptions.  Prominent Cleric and Scholar  Challenge of wobbling spheres and potential  Became Bishop of Warmia (Ermland) in 1489 collisions of spheres  Took Nicolaus’s Under his Wings  Equant concept allowed for non-uniform motion,  Facilitated Copernicus’s Education and Career breaking with ancient astronomy assumptions.  Helped Secure Copernicus’s Financial Stability  When viewed from Earth, a planet’s motion would  Supported Copernicus’s Advancement in the Church appear non-uniform when not observed from the equant. EDUCATION  Challenge of wobbling spheres and potential collisions University of Krakow (1491-1496) of spheres  Located in Poland Marāgheh Solution  Studied Liberal Arts —Astronomy and Astrology  13th-century Persian astronomers  Left before completing his degree  devised a method using oscillating points University of Bologna (1496-1501)  This approach avoided the need for equants  Located in Italy Copernicus’s Response  Furthered his education in Law, Medicine and Canon  Copernicus learned the Marāgheh method Law  Made his first Astronomical Observations  Used the Marāgheh insight to address the wobbling spheres in planetary models  Lived with astronomy professor Domenico Maria  Concerned with the disagreement among Novara da Ferrara astronomers about the order of the planets  Introduced by Novara to important books: o “Epitome of Ptolemy’s Almagest” by The Idea of Heliocentrism Regiomontanus o “Disputations against Divinatory Astrology” by  Developed during the last years of Watzenrode's Pico della Mirandola life (early 16th century)  Copernicus is derived from Koperniki  Planets in solar system revolve around the Sun o a village in Poland named after tradesmen  Precession of the Equinoxes who mined and sold copper  Rejected the Geocentric Model  A polyglot  Annual Orbit  Wasn't the first person to suggest heliocentrism,  Had some shortcomings Aristarchus of Samos  Laid the foundation for scientific revolution  A lifelong bachelor  As an official in the Catholic Church, Copernicus took The Commenntariolus a vow of celibacy  by Copernicus (1514)  Attended 4 universities before earning a degree  A small manuscript that was circulated but never  Passed away on May 24, 1543 printed  The Sun is at rest and the Earth’s in motion, leading University of Padua (1501-1503) to an organized planetary order:  Located in Italy  Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn  Studied Medicine  Resolved planet ordering issues, but introduces  Acquired artistic skills new challenges  Sent Copies to various astronomers University of Ferrara (May 1503)  CHALLENGES  Received doctorate in canon law o Abandoning Aristotelian Natural  Did not study here Philosophy o Explaining falling objects o Integrating Imperfect Earth ASTRONOMICAL WORK o Unverified Ancient Observations EVOLUTION OF PLANETARY MODELS o Precession of the Equinoxes Aristotle’s Model of the Solar System o Incoherencies in the Theory  Associated with Aristotle  Planets move with uniform angular motion on fixed The Seven Postulates radii  There is no one center in the Universe.  Planets carried on unchangeable, material,  The Earth’s center is not the center of the Universe. invisible spheres  The center of the universe is near the Sun.  Predictive model limitations  The distance from the Earth to the Sun is imperceptible compared with the distance to the Ptolemaic Model stars.  Attributed to Claudius Ptolemy  The rotation of the Earth accounts for the apparent  Introduced mechanisms to address the limitations of daily rotation of the stars. Aristotle’s model  The apparent annual cycle of movements of the  Proposed three mechanisms: Sun is caused by the Earth revolving around it. o Eccentrics o Epicycles o Equants 6 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh  The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is EDUCATION caused by the motion of the Earth from which one  His uncle finances his education observes. o Began with the study of law at the University of Copenhagen in 1559–1562 Narratio Prima (1540 And 1541, “First Narration”)  Several important natural events turned Tycho from  Also known as “De libris revolutionum Copernici law to astronomy. narration prima” o The first was the total eclipse of the Sun  Abstract of Nicolaus Copernicus' heliocentric predicted for August 21, 1560. theory, written by Georg Joachim Rheticus in 1540.  The professor of mathematics helped him with the only  Introduction to Copernicus's major work, De printed astronomical book available, the Almagest of revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543) Ptolemy  First printed publication of Copernicus's theory  In 1562 Tycho’s uncle sent him to the University of  Joint production of Copernicus and Rheticus Leipzig, where he studied until 1565.  Provided what was missing from the  Between 1565 and 1570 (or 1572?) he traveled widely Commentariolus throughout Europe, studying at Wittenberg, Rostock, Basel, and Augsburg and acquiring mathematical and De revolutionibus orbium coelestium astronomical instruments, including a huge quadrant.  In April 1566, he got into an argument with a Danish  Seminal work of Copernicus student who, like him, was studying at the  Laid the foundation for modern astronomy University of Rostock  Used detailed mathematical calculations  The two students fought a duel with swords, which  Met some resistance and controversy resulted in Tycho losing the front of his nose.  Challenged the geocentric model by Ptolemy  A year later, he returned to Denmark, where he began  Publication in 1543, shortly before his death experimenting with metal fittings to disguise his  “One of the most important scientific works in history” nose’s disfigurement.  In 2010, tests revealed that Brahe's famously "silver" Publication of “De revolutionibus” of Nicolaus Copernicus prosthetic nose was actually made out of brass.  Rheticus, a professor at Wittenberg, arranged for the  He committed a serious social offense because he took publication in Nürnberg, Germany. a woman who was not born an aristocrat as his partner  Johann Petreius, a top printer, was chosen for the job  Tycho Brahe died aged 54 on October 24, 1601 in  Handed over to Andreas Osiander, a theologian and Prague political figure in Nürnberg.  His premature death was probably caused by either a  Osiander added a preface to the book. burst bladder or kidney failure  Officially published in Nuremberg, Germany in 1543  Tiedemann Giese, a Roman Catholic bishop, WORKS OF CONTRIBUTIONS demanded a reprint from Petreius, but the city council Tycho System refused  a theoretical model of the solar system known to us  Osiander's role was revealed in Kepler's Astronomia nowadays as Tychonic System or Tychonian Model Nova in 1609. of the Solar System  The title of the work was changed from "On the  In Tycho's Model of the solar system, the idea of Revolutions of the Orbs of the World" to "Six geocentrism and heliocentrism were combined Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly  Earth is the center of the universe while the other Orbs," planets within the solar system revolve around the  The book's transformation into a new philosophy sun. about the fundamental structure of the universe was not until Kepler. Uraniborg  In 1571, Brahe constructed a small observatory on  Copernicus’s Revolutionary Ideas Reorganized the property owned by a relative. Heavens  On November 11, 1572, he suddenly saw a “new star,” brighter than Venus and where no star was What Did Nicolaus Copernicus Discover? supposed to be, in the constellation Cassiopeia.  Earth and the planets revolve around the sun  Tycho’s discovery of the new star in Cassiopeia in 1572  Major flaws in the work includes: and his publication of his observations of it in De nova o concept of the sun as the center of the stella in 1573 marked his transformation from a whole universe Danish dilettante to an astronomer with a European o failure to grasp the reality of elliptical reputation. orbits  In 1575, Brahe built an enormous observatory in an  “Gregorian” calendar with leap years island offered to him by King Frederick II. o under Pope Gregory XIII in 1582  island of Ven (formerly Hven), o still in use today  Tycho called the observatory Uraniborg, after Urania, the Muse of astronomy or Goddess of the Sky. TYCHO BRAHE LIFE TYCHO’S INSTRUMENTS  Born on December 14, 1546 in Knutstorp, in the Danish Brass Azimuthal Quadrant region of Scarnia, which is now in Sweden.  65 centimeters in radius, was built in 1576 or 1577  He was kidnapped by his uncle and aunt, Jorgen Brahe  It was one of the first instruments built at Hveen and Inger Oxe  was used for observations of the 1577 comet. 7 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh The Great Globe JOHANNES KEPLER  about 1.6 meter in radius, was over 10 years in the LIFE AND EDUCATION making.  Born on December 27, 1571 in Weil dear Stadt,  This instrument came in service in late 1580. Wurttemberg, Germany (Holy Roman Empire)  it came to be used to record the position of stars  He was known as a German mathematician and observed by Tycho. astronomer.  By 1595 he had 1000 accurately observed stars  He was indeed the first to use logarithmic inscribed on the globe. calculation in important astronomical researches and placed as the greatest master of calculation of his Armillary Sphere times.  also known as “Spherical Astrolabe”  He discovered that the Earth and planets travel  it is able to physically represent a model of the sky. about the sun in elliptical orbits and created the three major fundamental laws of planetary  enabling Tycho to develop celestial maps of motions. planetary movement.  He discovered that the Earth and planets travel  Tycho's armillary sphere was 1.6 meter in radius and about the sun in elliptical orbits and created the built in 1581. three major fundamental laws of planetary motions. o Law of Ellipses Triangular Sextant o Law of Equal Areas  about 1.6 meter in radius, was built in 1582. o Law of Harmonics  used to measure the angular position of celestial  He also did important work in optics and geometry. bodies relative to the horizon.  He was the son of Heinrich and Katharina Guldenmann Kepler. Great Equatorial Armillary  Physically Damaged, Intellectually Strong. He was a  This is an armillary sphere reduced to its bare sickly child and his parents were poor. But his evident essentials, and one of Tycho's workhorse instruments. intelligence earned him a scholarship to the University  It has an estimated accuracy of 38.6 seconds of arc. of Tubingen to study for the Lutheran ministry.  Tycho's great equatorial armillary, 3 meters in  Johannes Kepler was a young boy, he witnessed the diameter, was built in 1585 Great Comet of 1577, and an eclipse of the Moon in 1580. It inspired him to spend the rest of his life Revolving Wooden Quadrant studying the heavens.  Tycho's revolving wooden quadrant, 1.6 meter in  He is a follower of Copernicus and Galileo radius, was built in 1586.  In 1597 Kepler married Barbara Müller. They have 5  It had an estimated accuracy of 32.3 seconds of arc, children, only one boy and one girl reached adulthood. based on eight reference stars. And Kepler remarried in 1613 to his new wife Susanna  used for measuring the altitudes of stars Reuttinger, the marriage seems to have been happier, except for the deaths of more of his children. Revolving Wooden Quadrant  At thirteen he entered a religious training school at  Tycho's revolving wooden quadrant, 1.6 meter in Adelberg, Germany. After which he graduated to radius, was built in 1586. Maulbronn Monastery.  It had an estimated accuracy of 32.3 seconds of arc,  He was one of the beneficiaries of the ducal based on eight reference stars. scholarship; it made possible his attendance at the  used for measuring the altitudes of stars Lutheran Stift, or seminary, at the University of Tübingen, where he began his university studies in Uraniborg Press 1589.  After Tycho Brahe discovered the supernova of o He studied mainly theology and 1572, he gave lectures on astronomy at the philosophy, but also mathematics and University of Copenhagen. astronomy.  Cassiopeia printing press was not equipped to deal  As a university student, he studied the Polish with his new kind of technical scientific astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus’ theories of planetary publication. ordering. o He decided to build his own printing press on o Maestelin taught Kepler the comparison of the his own island Ptolemaic system and Copernican system. o Maestlin lent Kepler his own heavily  Brahe encountered a paper shortage which required annotated copy of Copernicus’s 1543 him to close his printing office. book, De revolutionibus orbium  He realized that the only method was to build his own coelestium libri vi (“Six Books Concerning paper mill. the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs”).  The University of Tübingen recommended Kepler for IMPACT OF HIS WORK & CONTRIBUTIONS the post of the "mathematician of the province" in Graz,  His observations of planetary motion provided the Austria. crucial data for later astronomers like Kepler to o Kepler himself defended Copernicus' construct our present model of the solar system scheme in a public debate. Unfortunately  Brahe's ideas about his data were not always correct, for him, that ensured that he would not be but the quality of the observations themselves was offered a faculty position at Tüebingen central to the development of modern astronomy when he graduated.  Brahe fine-tuned existing designs for his armillary  He arrived there in 1594 and began composition of the sphere, which helped astronomers plot orbits Mysterium Cosmographicum and succeeded. 8 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh  Mysterium Cosmographicum The Law of Equal Areas o An astronomy book by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, published at Tübingen in late 1596 and in a second edition in 1621. o He proposed that the universe was made up of a series of regular polygons inscribed inside each other.  In 1598, Kepler's school in Graz, along with other Lutheran institutions, was closed down by the young Archduke Ferdinand of Hapsburg, who had decided to cleanse the Austrian provinces of the Lutheran heresy.  He served as an assistant to another famous  The imaginary line joining a planet and the Sun astronomer named Tycho Brahe, and he even sweeps equal areas of space during equal time provided his expertise to Emperor Rudolf II. intervals as the planet orbits. o In January 1600, at the age of 28, Kepler set  The planets do not move with constant speed off for Prague to see if Brahe would offer him along their orbits. employment.  Their speed varies so that the line joining the centers  As Tycho’s assistant, they fought of the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal parts of continuously, because Tycho an area at equal times. refused to share his meticulous  The point of nearest approach of the planet to the Sun observations with Kepler. is termed perihelion. o Tycho assigned Kepler the task of  The point of greatest separation is aphelion, hence by understanding the orbit of the planet Mars, Kepler's Second Law, a planet is moving fastest when the movement of which fit problematically it is at perihelion and slowest at aphelion. into the universe as described by Aristotle and Ptolemy. The Law of Harmonies o Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor employs Brahe and Kepler to start the work on the tables (Rudolphine Tables). o Planetary tables and star catalog published in 1627 by Johannes Kepler, based principally on the observations of Tycho Brahe.  It is the first catalog to include corrective factors for atmospheric refraction, and logarithmic tables.  Both Tycho and Kepler made significant contributions to the change in the prevailing worldview of a geocentric universe. It was the beginning of a systematic study that transformed Medieval thinking – alchemy became chemistry and astrology led to astronomy.  Died on November 15, 1630 in Regensburg. His grave  A planet's orbital period is proportional to the size there was destroyed in 1632 by the Swedish army of its orbit (its semi-major axis). during the Thirty Years War. The Foundation of Modern Optics WORKS AND CONTRIBUTIONS  He discovered how pictures are formed by the eye, The Law of Ellipses kick-starting the field of optics.  In 1604 Kepler wrote a book titled “Astronomia Pars Optica”, earning him the title of founder of modern optics. o In this book he documented his observations, experiments and formulas accurately depicting the process of refraction within the eye.  He was in fact the first person to correctly explain how light travels through the lens of the eye and  Each planet's orbit about the Sun is an ellipse. then refracted and bent towards a precise focal point.  The Sun's center is always located at one focus of the orbital ellipse. The Keplerian Telescope  The Sun is at one focus.  An instrument for viewing distant objects, the  The planet follows the ellipse in its orbit, meaning basis for the modern refractive telescope. that the planet to Sun distance is constantly changing  Its eyepiece, or ocular, is a convex lens placed in as the planet goes around its orbit. back of the focus, the point at which the parallel light rays converge; and the instrument produces an inverted image that can be projected or made visible.  One of such telescopes was the famous Keplerian Telescope. 9 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh  Made in 1611, three years after the discovery of the gravitation, leading to a comprehensive first telescope in the Netherlands. understanding of celestial mechanics.  This telescope was different from all others because it o Kepler's work provided a foundation for used a convex eyepiece lens that enabled viewers subsequent astronomers to build upon. His work to see a much larger field of view and gave better influenced Galileo Galilei who furthered our eye relief. understanding of the cosmos.  However, it inverted the image which. This telescope  Keplerian Telescope design was also famous for its ability to reach much o Kepler's work played a role in the development of larger magnification levels that Galilean telescope, more accurate astronomical instruments and although that process demanded significant increase observational techniques. That improved the of focal length between lenses measurements and further advancements in our  With the telescope in his hand, Kepler managed to understanding of the universe. come to several large discoveries. He wrote a short o His Keplerian Telescope that helped Galileo piece “Conversation with the Starry Messenger” in on seeing other stars and planets. which he confirmed findings of Galileo (4 moons of Jupiter). GALILEO GALILEI  He wrote about theoretical uses of double-convex LIFE AND EDUCATION converging lenses and double-concave diverging  He is a natural philosopher lenses, and much more  Because of his observation about the movement of the universe, world works and the real world. The Heliocentric Model o Sciences of motion  He was the first to publish a defense of the  Astronomer Heliocentric Model. o Because of his revolutionary telescopic  The first major astronomical work of Johannes Kepler, discoveries. Such as: Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic  Craters and mountains in the moon Mystery) was published in 1596.  Jupiter’s moon  The work primarily tried to justify the six known  Stars of milky way planets and their distances from the sun in terms  Because of his invention of telescope. of the five Platonic solids.  Mathematician  Despite the flaw of its main thesis, it is considered an important work in astronomy as it got rid of the o Because of his contribution into the remaining defects of the Ptolemaic theory from the development of scientific method Copernican system.  Born in Paris, Italy  He is the oldest of the 6 siblings. Astronomia Nova  He remained a single status even though he’s  It was published in 1609. actually married.  His ten-year-long investigation of the motion of Mars in  He is an Italian Physicist his most renowned work, Astronomia nova (New  A famous artist because of his inventions and Astronomy), contained the first two laws of consequent astronomical observations. planetary motion, the Law of Ellipses and the Law of Equal Areas. TITLES  Father of Modern Astronomy Harmonice Mundi (Harmonies of the World) o was the first to use a refracting telescope  It was published in 1619. to make important astronomical discoveries.  It contained Kepler’s third law, which brought  Father of Modern Science together more than two decades of investigations o his work, experimentation and observation is into the archetypal principles of the world: recognized in the process of forming the geometrical, musical, metaphysical, astrological, scientific method for investigating the astronomical, and those principles pertaining to the nature. soul.  Father of Modern Physics IMPACT OF HIS WORK & CONTRIBUTIONS o major contribution to finding the motion of  The 3 laws of planetary of motion bodies and the development of the o It provided a crucial framework for understanding telescope. how planets move in their orbits around the Sun.  Father of Scientific Method They replaced the earlier, less accurate o Experimentation and observation is used models of planetary motion which is the for investigating the facts and laws of nature. Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system. EDUCATIONS o Kepler's laws supported and confirmed the  Studied in a Jesuit monastery heliocentric model proposed by Copernicus, o He is a religious person which states that the Earth and other planets o He studied medicine (1581) orbits around the Sun. o His father’s wish  It influenced other scientists. o There is more money in medicine o Kepler's laws became the foundation for Isaac  Prefered to study Mathematics (1585) Newton's creation of the law of universal o Interest and love in math gravitation. o Wants to become a mathematics teacher  He used Kepler's observations to formulate his own laws of motion and 10 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh WHY DOES GALILEO LOVE MATH? CONFLICT WITH THE CHURCH  Galileo began teaching math privately in Florence  In 1632, he published a book that stated, among other  Public actions things, that the heliocentric theory of Copernicus  Books and sharing his thoughts was correct.  Invention of mathematical compass o Galileo was once again called before the  Write some mathematical books Inquisition and this time was found guilty of heresy. INVENTION AND INNOVATIONS o Galileo was sentenced to life imprisonment  Telescope in 1633.  Galilean Compound Microscope  In 1992, under Pope John Paul II, the Vatican issued  Pendulum clock an official statement admitting that it was wrong to  Galilean Geometric and Military Compass have persecuted Galileo.  Thermometer ISAAC NEWTON BACKGROUND CONTRIBUTION IN ASTRONOMY  Born on December 25, 1642 prematurely and barely  Craters and mountains on the Moon survived in Woolsthorpe, England. o able to use the length of the shadows to estimate the height of the lunar  His mother Hannah Ayscough, remarried a well-to-do mountains, showing that they were similar to minister, Barnabas Smith. mountains on Earth.  Newton was elected as a member of parliament for the  The phases of Venus University of Cambride in 1689. o changing crescent phases like those of  President of the Royal Society the moon  Queen Anne knighted him in 1705.  Jupiter’s moons o Jupiter has four small satellites orbiting it THEORIES These moons are known as the Galilean  Astronomers had realized that the Earth itself was a moons: planet.  Lo o It revolves around the sun like any other  Ganymede planet.  Europa  Newton developed an explanation of planetary  Callisto motion.  The stars of the Milky Way o The planets must obey the same physical o made up of thousands of individual stars. laws that are observed on Earth.  Sunspots  Newton realized that the answer was which appear to be dark in color. gravity.  Newton developed a mathematical formulation of BOOKS gravity.  Starry Messenger (1610) o It explained both the motion of a falling o In Latin: “Sidereus Nuncius” apple and that of the planets in 1665 or o Contained observations of the moon’s 1666. surface and descriptions of a multitude of new stars in the Milky Way THE APPLE STORY  De Motu (1589)  Newton returned to Lincolnshire to Woolsthorpe o In english: “The Older Writings on Motion” Manor. o A series of essays on the theory of motion  As Newton sat in the farm’s orchad, an apple fell which he never formally published from one of the trees.  The Little Balance (1586)  Newton began to analyze the forces that caused o In Latin: “La Bilancetta” the apple to constantly fall directly to the ground. o He described an accurate balance for  He described his time off as “the prime of my age for weighing things in air and water, in which invention.” the part of the arm on which the counter weight was hung was wrapped with metal LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION wire  It states that every object in the Universe attracts  Galileo Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World every other object with a force. Systems / Dialogo di Galielo Galilei Linceo  Directly proportional  After Galileo began publishing papers about his o Force and to the product of the masses astronomy discoveries, he was called to Rome to  Inversely proportional answer charges brought against him by the o Force and to the square of the distance Inquisition between them o The Catholic Church, which was very  In symbols 𝒎 𝒎 𝒎 𝒎 powerful and influential in Galileo’s day 𝑭 = 𝑮 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 or 𝑭𝒈 = 𝒂 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒓 𝒓 o Strongly supported the theory of a where: geocentric universe. Fg = gravitational force  Galileo was accused of being a heretic m₁ = mass of object 1 o He was cleared of charges of heresy, but m₂ = mass of object 2 was told that he should no longer publicly G = gravitational constant = 6.7 x 10^11 𝑁−𝑚^2/𝑘𝑔^2 state his belief. r = distance a = acceleration 11 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh  Newton was able to show mathematically that the Application of Law of Universal Gravitation and Laws of only orbits permitted were exactly those described Motion in Planetary motion by Kepler’s laws.  Law of Universal Gravitation  The attractive force between all masses is what keeps o This law helps in finding the masses of the planets in orbit. earth, sun, and other objects in the universe. LAWS OF MOTION o This law helps in predicting the tides which Law of Inertia were due to the gravitational pull of the moon on earth. o The law of universal gravitation can explain why the moon doesn't crash or collide with Earth.  Laws of Motion  Law of Acceleration o The sun will experience much less acceleration because of its size and mass.  Law of Interaction o Whenever one body exerts force upon a second body, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force upon the first body.  It states that an object at rest remains at rest and OTHER INFORMATION an object in motion continues to move at a  Newton was also responsible for developing many of constant velocity unless it is acted upon by an the concepts of visible light. external force.  Newton's contribution to mathematics (calculus) and  Any moving object in space has a tendency to travel in science. a straight line at the same speed forever.  Newton created a telescope that used mirrors  The force of gravity causes the moving planets to travel (reflectors) instead of glass lenses. in elliptical orbits around the sun.  Newton died in his sleep in 1727, at the age of 84.  “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the Law of Acceleration shoulders of giants.” o Newton was explaining that his ideas didn’t come from him alone. o He relied on the ideas of those who came before him. o When Newton used the word “giant”, he meant people who were giants in the scientific community.  It states that the acceleration (caused by the net FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION force) of an object is directly proportional to the net BEGINNING force and inversely proportional to the mass of an  England object. o The first country where industrial related productions have commenced. Law of Interaction o In the late 17th and in the beginning of 18th century  there were enormous socio- economic changes in England which collectively known as the Industrial Revolution (IR). THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION  Simply Industrial Revolution  It was a more relentless and universal success. Marked as major turning point in history  It states that when the first object exerts a force on a  It is the transition and development of industries second object, the second will exert the same force on such as; the first but in the opposite direction. o from human and animal labour technology  Whenever one body exerts force upon a second into machinery, o new chemical manufacturing and iron body, the second body exerts an equal and opposite production processes force upon the first body. o improved efficiency of water power o the increasing use of steam power o the development of machine tools  Iron and textile industries played central roles in the Industrial Revolution 12 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh REASONS WHY THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION  James Hargreaves was granted a patent in 1770 for BEGAN IN GREAT BRITAIN the Spinning Jenny. Inventions and Innovations  Many of the most important inventions and Water Frame (1769) innovations that powered the revolution were  Inventor: Richard Arkwright created in England.  First fully automatic spinning machine invented  Initial developments occurred in the cotton industry  Powered by a waterwheel for continuous operation. with the development of the spinning jenny, water  Produced stronger and larger thread quantities than frame, and spinning mule. the Spinning Jenny.  Required placement in large buildings near fast- An Agricultural Revolution running streams.  England had been an agricultural nation for  Utilized child laborers for spinning operations. centuries  Farmers experimented livestock breeding Spinning Mule (1779)  In 1700s - Wealthy landowners bought up smaller  Inventor: Samuel Crompton farms and enclosed their larger lands with fences.  Combined features of Spinning Jenny and Water  Natural Resources Frame  It has an abundant supply of three “factors of  Efficiently produced both fine and coarse yarn. production”  Allowed a single operator to manage over 1,000 o factors of production are land, labor, and spindles, boosting productivity. capital.  Samuel Crompton faced financial exploitation and  Land - Land in this sense is not just underpayment for his invention. open land for industry to build on. It also means the natural resources STEAM ENGINE needed for industrialization. Watt’s Steam Engine (1769)  Labor - represents a large  Inventor: James Watt workforce for the industries.  Improved steam engines in 18th century  Capitol – the money needed to fund industry.  Increased efficiency and adaptability for industrial use A Stable Government and Economy  Applications of Watt's steam engine: o Powered paper mills  Life in country was relatively peaceful. o flour mills  The political system of England encouraged trade o cotton mills and Entrepreneurship. o Iron mills o distilleries BEFORE THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN  Used in canals and waterworks  Most people lived in small villages. They travelled on  Contributed to his wealth foot or by horses through small paths. Illness was common because of inadequate food, poor hygiene, Steam Locomotive (1803) use of polluted water, and non-existence of sewage system. As a result, life expectancy was very short.  Inventor: Richard Trevithick  People used handmade tools powered by people or  Utilized high-pressure steam for efficiency animals  Quickly replaced Watt's less-efficient designs in  People wove textiles only by hand but after the IR industrial applications greatly increased output of machine-made goods.  George Stephenson: o Developed Locomotion and Rocket DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN locomotives  The average income and standard of living of o Stephenson's innovations enabled faster common citizens have not increased. passenger rail travel  The more people joined factory, the farmer’s  Late 19th-century railway improvements: population declined.  Andrew J. Beard's Jenny coupler: o Automated train car coupling INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS  Elijah McCoy's lubricating device:  1750 – 1900 o Kept steam engines running without frequent  forever changed the way people in Europe and the stops United States lived and worked  Inventors and their creations played a pivotal role in Steamboats and Steamships shaping this new society  Robert Fulton's North River Steamboat: o Revolutionized US river travel.  The Savannah (1819): SPINNING AND WEAVING o First steamship to cross the ocean. Spinning Jenny (1764)  19th-century steamships:  Inventor: James Hargreaves o Faster, bigger ships  The machine drew thread from eight spindles o changed global travel. simultaneously.  "Atlantic Ferry" service:  Contrasted with the single-spindle operation of the o Made regular Atlantic Ocean travel possible traditional spinning wheel. with fast steamships. 13 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm  jtmh HARNESSING ELECTRICITY The Automobile Electric Generators and Electric Motors  Gasoline-powered engine:  Fulton's 1807 Steamboat: o Ideal for small vehicles, efficient, and o Early success in US river travel. lightweight.  The Savannah 1819:  Daimler and Karl Benz: o First steam-powered ocean voyage. o Made the first motorcycle and car in 1885,  19th-century steamships: early pioneers. o Faster, bigger ships  Henry Ford's assembly line: o transform travel and trade. o Changed car production in the early 20th  "Atlantic Ferry" service: century. o Easier Atlantic transport due to speedy  1890s: steamships. o Auto industry starts, serving rich customers with advanced cars in Europe and the US. Electric Railways and Tramways  Model T:  Electric motors and generators were key for o Affordable for the average American, a electric trains and lighting development. game-changer in transportation  Electric railways and trams started in the late 19th century, showing electric motors' practical use. PADAYON! FUTURE ENGINEERS  London's subway had the first electric section in 1890, a milestone in electric transport and lighting tech. The Incandescent Lamp  1878-1879: o Joseph Wilson Swan and Thomas Edison invent the practical electric light bulb.  Edison gets the credit for developing power systems, making it usable.  Over 50 years, electric light bulbs replace gas and kerosene lamps in cities.  1881: o Latimer patents a better filament, making bulbs last longer. o Latimer's idea makes electric lighting cheaper and spreads faster. TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE The Telegraph (1869)  Inventor: Samuel Morse  allowed communication by wire using electricity  Samuel F.B. Morse created Morse Code using dots and dashes to communicate from East coast to the Mississippi. Telephone (1876)  Inventor: Alexander Graham Bell  Bell's phone used coils and reeds to transmit sound through electric current  First words spoken: o "Mr. Watson—Come here—I want to see you"  First call in Bell's lab to summon assistant Thomas Watson INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE AND AUTOMOBILE The Internal-Combustion Engine  Étienne Lenoir's 1859 engine used coal gas and air as fuel.  Nikolaus Otto's 1878 four-stroke cycle improved efficiency and durability, replacing steam engines.  Rudolf Diesel introduced a more efficient diesel engine using heavy oil.  Gottlieb Daimler's 1885 engine was the first gasoline-powered version based on Otto's design.  Diesel engines found widespread use in locomotives, heavy machinery, and submarines. 14 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Midterm