General Biology - Specialized Cells & Structures (PDF)

General Biology -- 12 -- BNR **Specialized Cell and Cell Structures in ANIMALS** **Microvilli** -- **increase surface area for the [absorption of nutrients]** from gut cavity into underlying tissue and blood vessels that can be found in: - Small intestine - Kidney - Egg cells - White b...

General Biology -- 12 -- BNR **Specialized Cell and Cell Structures in ANIMALS** **Microvilli** -- **increase surface area for the [absorption of nutrients]** from gut cavity into underlying tissue and blood vessels that can be found in: - Small intestine - Kidney - Egg cells - White blood cells **Cilia** -- **prevent dirt** **from entering lungs** (ex. Mucus and bacteria) which can be found in the **respiratory tract (ex. nose)** **Stereocillia** -- **detect sounds** from the environment (inner ear) Note : Cilia and stereocila is **reponsible for movement and sensation** **Flagella** -- (tail-like structure) provide **motility** to the cell (ex. Sperm cell) **Basal Infoldings** -- responsible for **increasing surface area for [ion and fluid transport ]** **Hemidesmosomes** -- [Help epithelial tissue] to **provide protection and structure support** to the underlying cells Note: Basal Infoldings and Hemidesmosomes are both found at the [basement membrane of epithelial cells]. **Responsible for fluid transport and attachment.** **Cell junctions** -- (*cell junction are the connection between cells)* and can be **found in epithelial cells** and are mainly **responsible for connection adjacent cells** *-- (adjacent cells are cells placed close to each other)* - **Tight Junction** -- [prevent leakage] of substances - **Adherens Junctions** -- connect adjacent cells. (*[help maintain tissue structure]*) - **Desmosomes** -- connect adjacent cells. (*stronger and provides mechanical strength to tissues under stress like skin and heart muscle)* - **Gap Junctions** -- serve as [channels of ions, water] and other essential substances. **Red Blood Cells** - **Biconcave** to [aid in the diffusion of gases] from the air sacs of the lungs and into the oxygen-deprived tissues of the rest of the body. - **Lack nucleus** [ ] --- gives space for hemoglobin (more oxygen molecules can be transported) - **Lack Mitochondria** (they generate their energy through anaerobic respiration) **White Blood Cells** -- responsible for the **body defenses.** Can either be: - Granulocytes - Agranulocytes **EOSINOPHILS** -- Type of White blood cells that help fight parasites Note : red and white blood cells are responsible for **transporting oxygen and protecting the body from pathogens.** **Egg cells** -- **largest cells** in the human body (necessary for sexual reproduction) Note : Sperm Cells travels from the testes to the female's fallopian tube to facilitate an event called fertilization. **Specialized Cell and Cell Structures in PLANTS** **Trichomes** -- **Protection for plants** from extreme temperatures, insectsm or herbivore attacks. **Epidermal outgrowths** responsible for - Preventiving insect attacks - Shading leaves - Trapping insects **Root Hairs** -- **Increases surface area for the absorption of water.** **Mesophyll Cells** -- **primarily responsible for photosynthesis** that is made up of palisade cells and spongy cells. **Xylem and Phloem** -- **Tissues that are responsible for transporting essential substances** (like water, minerals, and food needed by plants) 1. The **main function of cilia** is the move mucus, bacteria, and dirt out of the lungs 2. The **Function of the Microvilli** is to increase surface area for absorption 3. The **primary role of stereocilia** in the inner ear of frogs is to detect sounds and vibration 4. The **four types of animal tissues** are Connective Tissue, Muscle Tissue, Epithelial Tissue, and Nervous Tissue 5. The **Primary function of epithelial tissue** is to form the inner and outer lining of organs and surfaces 6. **Tight Junction** prevent leakage of substances 7. **Gap Junctions** serve as channel of ion, water and other substances 8. **Trichomes** are known as small, hair-like outgrowths that covers the surface of plants, including the stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits. 9. **Root Hair** increases the surface area for absorbing water and nutrients 10. The **2 types of Mesophyll Cells** that are found in plant leaves are Xylem and Phloem 11. **Flagella** are tail-like structures that provide motility to cells 12. The **main function of Red blood cells** is to carry oxygen 13. The **primary role of sperm cell** is to carry genetic material to the egg 14. The **2 layers of egg cells** are called Zona Pellucida and Corona Radiata 15. **Microvilli can be found** specifically in the small intestine 16. **White blood cells** are responsible for the body's defense 17. Photosynthesis is the primary function of **Mesophyll cells** 18. **Microscope** is the instrument used to see Trichomes 19. Root Hairs arise from epidermis 20. **Xylem** transport water 21. **Phloem** transport food **PLANT CELLS** Plant tissues - **Meristematic tissues** - Are found in the growing areas of plants - **Permanent tissues** - Are composed of non-dividing cells - **Cuticle** -- prevents loss of water and invasion of disease-causing microorganisms. - **Epidermis**- covers the whole body of nonwoody and young woody plants - **Root hairs**- help in increasing the absorption capacity of roots. - **Trichomes** -- responsible for protecting the plants from water loss PARTS OF PLANT ROOT TIP - **Protoderm** -- The Primary Meristem in vascular plants that give rise to epidermis. - **Ground Meristem** -- An area of primary meristematic tissue, emerging from and immediately behind the apical meristem that develops into the pity and the cortex. - **Procambium** -- That forms cambium and primary vascular tissues. - **Apical Meristem** -- Occur at the growing shoot and root tips. - **Root cap** -- Protects the growing tip in plants. - **Protoderm**, ground meristem, and procambium are the derivatives of apical meristem. - **Tracheids** - are thin and elongated cells where water passes through. - **Vessel Elements** - they have perforated plates that allow the transport of water through the vessels. 1. **Apical Meristem** -- responsible for the primary growth of the plant - It is the part of a plant that grows above the ground - responsible for extending upward **Terminal bud** - they help the plant grow taller or longer - located at the tip of the shoot system (shoot system includes the stem, leaves, and flowers) **Root Apical Meristem (RAM)** - responsible for extending downwards **Root cap** -its job is to protect the roots as it pushes downward -located at the tip of the root Note: Without apical meristem, the plant wouldn't be able to grow in height of length **Stomata** -- they allow the exchange of gases **Guard cell -**controls the opening and closing of stomata Two kinds of Sclerenchyma cell **Sclereids** -- responsible for gritty-textured flesh of some fruits **Fibers** -- commercially as components of making rope and flax fibers **Parenchyma** -- have thin walls, they help with important tasks like storing food, water, and air. **Ground Tissues- also called fundamental Tissues because their functions are essential for the growth and development of plants.** **Collenchyma** -- provides furnishing flexible support to immature parts of plants **Lateral meristem**- responsible for the secondary growth of the plants, helps in the thickness structure of the plant to stabilize Its growing position Secondary growth can be observable in the stems and roots. The stems will grow, and the roots will increase Its size. **Two types of Lateral Meristem** 1. Cork Cambium 2. Vascular Cambium **Cork Cambium**- gives rise to cork cells which replaces the epidermis of the plants once they mature. It produces the bark of a woody plants which is in the outer part of a tree or plant. The bark is made up of cork cambium, cork, and phloem. **Vascular Cambium**- Gives rise to secondary xylem and phloem. Secondary xylem gives rise to wood. It is also responsible for the increasing diameter of the stem and roots of the plant. **Permanent tissues**- These tissues are formed or made by meristematic tissues that has lost the ability divide, also making the positions of these tissues are permanent at the fixed place. **2 Types of Permanent Tissues** 1. **Simple permanent tissues** -are composed of one kind of cell which is made up of similar type of cell that performs the same function. 2. **Complex permanent tissues** -are composed of two or more kinds of cells **Epidermis**- It covers the whole body of the nonwoody and young woody plants and is protected by waxy cuticle. The outer layer, basically the skin of the plant. **Cuticle**- waxy layer that is also found at the epidermis, leaves, and stems prevents the loss of water and invasion of disease-causing microorganisms. Structures and Functions of **Animal Cells** *Reviewer* I. II. **Hierarchy of Biological Organization** 1. **Chemical** - **The interaction of atoms and molecules make up the basic unit of life**. - Biomolecules: - Carbohydrates - Proteins - Lipids/Fats - Nucleic Acids 2. **Organelles** - **Distinct and specialized structures that contribute to the cell's maintenance and reproduction.** - Membrane-bound structures in eukaryotes. 3. **Cells** - **The smallest, basic, functional unit of life.** 4. **Tissues** - **Group of cells** that work together to perform a specialized function. - 4 types of Animal Tissues: - Epithelial - Connective - Muscle - Nervous 5. **Organs** - **Group of tissues** that work together to perform a specialized function. 6. **Organ Systems** - **Groups of organs that work together to perform a certain process in the body.** 7. **Organisms** - **Formed by different organ systems that interact with one another to maintain balance or homeostasis.** 8. **Population** - **Organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same area.** 9. **Community** - **Different populations(organisms) living in the same area.** 10. **Ecosystem** - **Includes all the communities interacting with one another and with their environment.** 11. **Biosphere** - Includes all the different kinds of ecosystems. ***Sponges** are the simplest forms of animals. They are organisms that are made of group of cells that contribute to the sustenance of life in a sponge.* **Tissues --** These refer to groups of cells that are similar in structure and function. III. **Types of Animal Tissues** 1. 2. Epithelial Tissues - forms the **inner and outer lining of organs**, **covering in surfaces**, and **the primary glandular tissue of the body**. - Tightly packed cells, **cover and protect bodily structures**. - Classified based on **cell arrangement** (simple, pseudostratified, stratified) and **cell shape** (squamous, cuboidal, and columnar). - Types: - **Simple Squamous** -- one layer \| flat, scale-like \| site of diffusion (exchange of substances), secretion. - **Simple Cuboidal** -- one layer \| cube-shaped \| absorption & secretion. - **Simple Columnar** -- one layer \| elongated or column-shaped \| absorption & secretion \| contains goblet cells that secrete mucus. - **Pseudostratified Columnar** -- one layer \| elongated or column-shaped \| absorption & secretion \| usually ciliated; cells have unequal length and position of nucleus forming a false layering of cells. - **Stratified Squamous** -- more than one layer \| flat, scale-like \| protection against abrasion or constant exposure to friction. - **Stratified Cuboidal** -- more than one layer \| cube-shaped \| protection and secretion. - **Stratified Columnar --** more than one layer \| elongated or column-shaped \| protection & secretion. 3. **Connective Tissues** - The different connective tissues vary with the composition of their extracellular matrices and the types of cells they consist of. - Characterized by the presence of ground substances and fibers that **support, bind, and protect organs**. - Types: - **Bone/Osseous Tissue** - Layers of very hard matrix with calcium salts and collagen fibers. - Consists of bone cells called **Lacunae**. - *Skull and Ribs*. - **Protection and Support.** - **Cartilage** - More flexible than bone. - Cartilage cells are called **Chondrocytes**. - ***Hyaline Cartilage, Fibro Cartilage, Elastic Cartilage.*** - **Protection & Support.** - **Dense Connective Tissue** - Matrix is predominantly made up of collagen fibers and has lesser cells. - This is a **fibroblast** or fiber-forming cell. - *Tendon, Ligament.* - **Support**. - **Loose Connective Tissue** - Matrix contains more cells and less fibers than dense connective tissue so it's softer. - *Areolar tissue, Adipose Tissue/Fat Tissue, Reticular Connective Tissue.* - **Protection, Insulation,** **Storage, and Support.** - **Blood** - Plasma. - Cellular components consist of blood cells. - With fibers that are only visible during clotting because they are made up of soluble proteins. - *Blood* - *Blood Cells; Red & White.* - **Transport of Substance, Immune Response, and Blood Clotting.** 4. **Muscular Tissues** - **Elicit movement**. - Composed of **highly specialized muscle cells** that contract to **produce movement**. - Types: - **Skeletal Muscle** - Attached to the skeleton or bones. - Long cylindrical, striated (with visible stripes), and multinucleated (with more than one nucleus). - Muscle Control: *Voluntary.* - **Smooth Muscle** - Found in the walls of the hollow organs such as intestines, stomach, bladder, blood vessels, and uterus. - Spindle-shaped (have pointed ends), nonstriated, and uninucleated. - *Involuntary.* - **Cardiac Muscle** - Found in the heart. - Uninucleated, has striations, and has intercalated disks. - *Involuntary*. 5. **Nervous Tissue** - **made up of neurons** that **receive and conduct electrochemical signals** and **supporting cells** (glial cells) that support, protect, and insulate neurons. - **Neuron**, the basic unit of the nervous system, consists of structures that can conduct electrochemical signals as a form of information. - They can be classified based from their number of cellular processes. (Multipolar, Bipolar, (Pseudo) Unipolar). - Types of Nervous Tissues: - **Microglial Cells** - Central Nervous System (CNS). - **Ovoid cells** in the CNS that can transform into a phagocytic macrophage to clean neuronal debris and waste. - **Astrocytes** - Central Nervous Systems (CNS). - **Star-shaped cells** that support and control the chemical environment around the neurons. - These are the most abundant glial cell in the CNS. - **Ependymal** - Central Nervous System (CNS). - **Ciliated cells** that line the central cavities of the brain and the spinal cord. - Forms a fairly permeable membrane between the cavities with cerebrospinal fluid and the tissues of the CNS. - **Oligodendrocytes** - Central Nervous System (CNS). - Responsible for the **production of myelin sheath.** - **Satellite Cells** - Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). - They **surround the cell body** of a neuron. - **Schwann Cells** - Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). - They **surround all the nerve fibers and produce myelin sheath** similar to oligodendrocytes.