Functions Of Mental Processes PDF

FUNCTIONS OF MENTAL PROCESSES J. Mallar THINKING Thinking refers to the processes occurring upon the presentation of a stimulus and the emergence of an overt response. It involves the interplay of concepts, symbols, or mediating responses rather than a direct manipulation of objects in the enviro...

FUNCTIONS OF MENTAL PROCESSES J. Mallar THINKING Thinking refers to the processes occurring upon the presentation of a stimulus and the emergence of an overt response. It involves the interplay of concepts, symbols, or mediating responses rather than a direct manipulation of objects in the environment. Images are recollections or reconstruction of sensory experiences and may imply sight, taste, touch, smell, and sound. They may be incomplete or inaccurate, concrete or abstract, dim or vivid. They may either fade or grow stronger with time. An extreme and rare kind of imaging is found in a few people, most frequently children, who have eidetic imagery. Words are complex signs made up of letters and sounds that represent concepts, experiences, and objects. Signs are representations of what exist in the world of objects and situations. Some psychologists believe the language we speak is crucial in structuring our perception and thought. Benjamin Whorf argued that thinking is patterned by language, and the language we speak determines our view of the world. The interconnection between language and thought is the subject of a relatively new field of study called psycho- linguistics. Concepts can be viewed as categories for classifying people, things, or events on the basis of common elements. Rote rehearsal- used to hold on to information needed only for a moment. Materials are transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory through elaborate or constructive re- hearsals. This process links materials to facts and concepts in long-term memory. Coding, a way of compressing information into abbreviated form, also takes place. Long-term memory has a vast capacity for information. It is highly organized and relatively permanent. It assimilates new items by relating them to categories it already contains. It is a dynamic, interdependent, and continually shifting network. Something enters long-term memory depending on how it is organized. The information is categorized or indexed according to meaning, and perhaps in terms of sound or visual images. Retrieval is the process by which information is drawn from memory. Retrieving an item from long-term memory is a more direct process than retrieving from short-term memory. We carry on the search for missing information by means of cues. Cueing is a way of checking each of the numer ous categories and selecting one that contains the information we are trying to find. The better organized the categories and the more information these contain, the more likely it is that the search will be successful. Memory Strategies and Tactics Memory-directed tactics are used for faster and more accurate retrieval of information. This also guides the learner to organize unrelated data and make these meaningful. 1\. Rote Rehearsal effective for short-term storage; uses rehearsing items several times 2\. Mnemonic Device- organizes information system- atically for faster retrievability a\) Rhyme-items of information embedded by repetition of sound usually at end of a line b\) Acronym first letter of each word to make a word. Example: In an interview, one must apply SOFTEN,which means: Smile, Openness, Forward, Touch, Eye contact, and Nod. c\) Acrostic-first letter from a series of words that forms a sentence. Each word in the sentence corresponds to items. Example: My Dear Aunt Sally is used to remember Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction d\) Method of Loet generates visual images and memories of a set of well-known locations. Loci (pronounced as law sigh) is the plural of locus, meaning place. e\) Keyword information associated with an object Example: To remember the girl you just met named Rosa Mistica (Rose-flower and mistica-mystery). For example, to remember Piaget\'s Stages of Cognitive Development, use 1\) Sensory motor picture of a car with varied senses -eyes, ears, nose, etc. 2\) Pre-operational doctor scrubbing before an opera- tion 3\) Concrete man cutting a piece of hard block 4\) Formaboperation doctor in Barong Tagalog Forgetting- Forgetting refers to the inability to remember learned materials. What is most commonly forgotten is an isolated fact, something that has nothing to do with anything. For example, you forget what you did at three o\'clock yesterday Afternoon Psychologists have various theories for why we forget isolated facts. Below are two such theories: a\) Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting. We forget iso- lated facts because over time, the strength of the memory trace (the chemical or structural change in the nervous sys- tem) decreases. b) Interference Theory of Forgetting, We forget be- cause other things get in the way. Interference may come from The original T-FLT held that habits are instrumental behavioral solutions to problems. Habits are learned on the basis of reduction, and fear becomes conditioned to new signals or signs on the basis of drive induction. The preced- ing section showed there are two types of fear conditioning, rather than one. Researchers saw the possibility of reconciling and inte- grating two seemingly incompatible concepts of secondary reinforcement. This reconciliation was found to have impor- tant implications on habit, and led to a revision of the T-FLT. Incremental fear conditioning states that, if fear arousal is conditioned to a stimulus external to the organism, the organism will be motivated (by the fear) to get rid of that stimulus. Very often, the best way of doing this is to retreat from it. On the other hand, if fear arousal is conditioned to stimulus internal to the organism (response-produced), the organism is motivated to get rid of it by inhibit inhibiting sponse producing the fear-arousing stimulation. the re- Avoidance Learning- When it became apparent that the two behavior- ist concepts of learning (Pavlov\'s and Thorndike\'s) were not complete, interest developed in Avoidance Learning. Avoidance learning comes in two forms: active and pas-sive. In active avoidance learning, \"fear\" is regarded as a positive intervening variable. In passive avoidance learning, contingency depends on the suppression of some specified response. The suppressed response may be spontaneous or learned through prior reward training. In both forms, avoidance refers to the prevention or omission of a predictable negative event. Negative events can be defined as events which are preferably absent. Examples are electric shock, loud noise, blasts of air, and extremely high or low temperatures. C. DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) Hull\'s drive reduction theory states that, when the strength of drive is diminished, responses are reinforced and learning occurs. Hull concluded that learning is in response to reward; thus emerged his reinforcement theory of learning. The limitation of the drive reduction theory is that it does not explain certain behaviors involving intrinsic motiva- tion. Nor does it account for incentives of drives. Recognizing the need for a more cognitive approach to motivation, psy- chologists came up with expectancy-value models. Expectancy-value models of motivation (Tolman, 1959; Lewin, 1951) explained motivated behavior by taking into account both the expectancy of achieving a goal and the value placed upon it. Hull\'s Fundamental Law of Acquisition Habit strength is the connection bonding stimulus with response. It is a function of the numbers of reinforcement of S-R units in progressive increments and expressed symboli- cally as sHr. The formula for habit formation is Hr1-10-an Performance diminishes to zero when either drive or habit strength is lacking. Without repeated reinforcement or responses, extinction ensues. The formula for primary motivation is sEr = Dx sHr where E = excitatory potential; r = reaction potential; D drive; H = habit strength. The equation signifies that the tendency of an individual to evoke a response to a given drive intensity is multiplied by habit strength. Hull measured learning or habit strength by reaction latency, the time interval from the onset of the stimulus until the associated reaction; and reinforcement, which is contingent upon drive stimulus reduction and usually af- fected by secondary reinforcement. It is not drive reduction Motivation and Learning The principle of reinforcement states that rewarded responses are stamped in, while unrewarded responses either are not learned or tend to fade when reinforcement is withdrawn. Although this principle does not hold true in all leaning situations, it does for a variety of situations and has a major bearing on the effectiveness of learning in real life situations. Rewards for learning are said to be extrinsic when they are related to the learning achieved. For example, when you do exceptionally well in class, you earn a medal. Report cards, honor rolls, and gold medals are examples of extrinsic motivation used in classroom situations. Chapter 5. MEASURING LEARNING PERFORMANCE 103 Intrinsic rewards are those less closely connected with obvious external incentives. There is intrinsic reward in do- ing well in college for the pleasure of using one\'s intellectual faculties or for the satisfaction of gaining more knowledge. Learning and remembering tend to be better when the motivation is intrinsic, when the learner is motivated to be interested in the task and anxious to learn it for its own sake. Thus today\'s teachers rely less on reward and punishment and try instead to build interest in the materials to be stud- ied. When learners feel the need to know and are active in the search for information, they understand and remember better than when the same materials are simply presented for them to memorize. Punishment and Learning Firmly rooted in our folklore is the idea that punishment is both necessary and proper in teaching children to behave in approved ways. Children who are infrequently punished are often regarded as spoiled brats, and parents who pun- ish only sparingly may be viewed as a nuisance by any neighbor who accepts the notion that sparing the rod spoils the child. Punishment is administered in order to stop the occurrence of undesirable responses. We slap the dog to stop it from destroying the plants; we jail criminals to teach them not to steal. But how effective are these efforts? Punishment clearly alters behavior, but researches show that punishment has a number of different effects. Edward L. Thorndike was the first psychologist to become disillusioned with punishment, and concluded it does not really weaken the strength of the punished response. He argued that, al- though the rewarded responses are stamped in and occurs with greater frequency as learning progresses, punishment does not decrease the frequency of wrong behavior. As a matter of fact, punished responses tend to be strengthened. One of the strange aspects of punishment is that, under some circumstances, it can be rewarding. For example, if parents habitually punish a child, then shower him or her Some psychologists, notably Skinner, argued that learn-ing should be based on positive reinforcement, and that aversive stimulation should be used as little as possible. Skinner\'s strong preference for positive reinforcement is based in part on the side effects of punishment. If the teacher punishes the learner, the teacher will become a secondary aversive stimulus, and his or her effectiveness will certainly be impaired. Students will avoid contact with the teacher and will come to dislike the subject matter as well. In general, psychologists do not advocate the use of punishment in the classroom. But, because of the complex nature of human social life, teachers cannot be expected to always and completely be positive or non-punitive. Never showing irritation, annoyance, or displeasure could brand the teacher as abnormal. Use of reinforcement or punishment in classroom situations 1\. Teachers play a difficult role of determining when and how much to reward or to punish. Teacher must control the reinforcement schedule to maintain the desired behavior. 2\. When the teacher punishes in any manner or degree, the risk of being associated with the punishment is imme- diate and powerful. It is important to build an appropriate teacher-student relationship, and for the teacher to win the students\' confidence and respect; then, the risk of negative after-effects of punishments are diminished. Calculated forms of punishments can be employed to foster a well-controlled anxiety that may result in greater student effort. 3\. Reward psychology does not mean constant cod- dling of students. It is not always necessary to reinforce with the same quantity and quality of reward. As students master a skill or content, any obvious and overt rewards are perceived as unnecessary \"bribes.\" The mastery of the material becomes by itself, the reward. Attention Presently, more psychologists are devoting studies on \"attention\" (or motivation) and are looking for ways and means to harness it more effectively in the teaching process. For the student to learn what teachers want him or her to learn, all irrelevant stimuli must be removed and the student must respond to the relevant stimuli. This is what teachers mean by \"attention.\" In the early stages of development, children tend to be curious about a lot of things around them, but their native endowments and limited experience are not adequate to cope with all the wide varieties of life situations. Failure in some aspects is bound to be experienced. Some children fail at such endeavors as sports, interpersonal relations, verbal tasks, and manual or artistic operations. Gradually, they begin to form discriminated response patterns and show \"curiosity\" only on selected matters. Such selective development is inevitable because no one can afford to be \"curious\" about everything. If children attempt to master every problem that arises, they will never reach their goal. One must curtail over-curi- osity and restrict it to limited areas. As the saying goes, the person with too many avocations cannot afford a vocation. Teacher cannot expect students to be equally interested (curious) in all subjects. One will be interested in some and not in other subjects; others may not be interested in any. Without interest, there will be no attention. This results in little learning at the designated time. How then is one to handle the learner with no interest in material that must just has to be learned? Simple: change the program and reverse the condition. Meaning, to follow the lead of progressive educators and let the student\'s interests determine his or her selection of courses or activities. Practical Suggestions About Attention Teachers can devise ways and means for the prospective learner to succeed at the activity that it is to be learned. One set that can affect problem-solving is called func- tional fixedness, or the tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for an object. The more an object is used in a particular way, the harder it is to see new uses for it. When you do something in only one way, you have assigned it a fixed function. People sometimes solve problems by using insight/the sudden grasp of a situation or problem, or creative think- ing. However, many psychologists are still unsure whether insightful or creative problem-solving is very different from step-by-step problem-solving. Some believe that similar pro- cesses are involved but are unrecognized by the individual. DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE Varied Nature of Intelligence 1\. Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon (1916) - the es- sential traits of intelligence are good sense, practical sense, the faculty of adapting one\'s self to circumstances, good judgement, good comprehension, ability to reason well. 2\. Charles Spearman (1923) intellectual performance is determined by the \"g\" factor as the ability to reason and solve problems whereas the \"s\" factor includes it as the core of intelligence which is predictor of both academics and busi- ness. ing a lette QUIREMEN ). ENT and TID. 3\. Stoddard (1943) intelligence is the ability to un dertake activities characterized by difficulty, complexity. abstractness, economy, adaptiveness to a goal, social value, emergence of original, and to maintain activities under con- ditions that demand concentration of energy and resistance to emotional focus. 4\. Raymond Cattell (1971) gave two models of intel- ligence. Namely: Crystallized Intelligence, the ability to retrieve previ- ously learned information from long-term memory and practice or apply to current problems Fluid Intelligence: the type of learning that is de- pendent on short term memory or novel type of intelligence where personal experience is not a factor but rather the efficient functioning of the nervous system. Fluid intelligence begins to decline as people enter late adulthood. 5\. Robert Sternberg (1986) introduced the Triorchic Theory of Intelligence. It was composed of analytical, practi- cal, and creative intelligence. Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology 1\. Cognitive Processes influence the nature of what is learned. This gives use to information processing theory. This focuses on how the learners mentally think about new information and situations. 2\. Selectivity of what is to be learned tends to discriminate and identify important things to learn. 3. Construction of meaning to help understand the problem. 4\. Prior knowledge and beliefs play an important role in understanding the problem. 5\. Active Involvement in learning - must exert a certain amount of planning and thinking in order to learn effectively. Observational Learning Experiment Bandura gathered a group of 4-6 year-old nursery children to watch a five-minute movie which showed an adult, the model, exhibiting aggressive behavior towards an adult-size plastic Bobo doll. The model laid the Bobo doll on its side, sat on it, and punched the nose while remarking, \"Pow! Right in the nose! Boom, boom!\" The model kicked the doll about the room while shouting, \"Fly away!\" Finally, the model threw rubber balls at the Bobo doll, punctuating each stroke with \"Bang!\". Different endings were presented to different children: 1\. Model reward condition. The ending showed a second adult gifting the model with candy and softdrinks and praising his aggressive behavior with phrases like, \"You are a strong champion.\" 2\. Model punished condition. The second adult shook his fingers and spanked the model with a rolled-up magazine, warning him not to act aggres- sively again. \"I\'ll give you a hard spanking.\" 3\. No-consequence condition. The film ended after the last aggressive act. The children were then left in a playroom for 10 minutes with assorted toys. Among those were a Bobo doll and an object (mallet) similar to the instrument of aggression in the film. The children were offered fruit juice and small toys for each of the aggressive responses they performed. The experiment revealed the following: a\. Reinforcing consequences to the model significantly increased the number of matching responses that the children spontaneously reproduced. b\. Boys performed more imitative responses than girls. Girls were more influenced by the rewarding conse- quences to the model. c\. The introduction of positive incentives showed an equivalent amount of learning for the children in the three groups. Steps of Observational Learning or Modeling Process From the responses, Bandura established the following steps involved in observational learning or modeling process: 1\. Attention or acquisition. One should pay attention in order to learn anything. Likewise, anything that interrupts attention will decrease learning. The ability to pay attention to the significant features of the modeled behavior is a critical first step. The character- istics of the observer and of the model also affect retention, reproduction, and reinforcement of imitated behavior. The common characteristics of the model and observer usually operate jointly to affect the propensity to imitate. Thus, an aspiring athlete who lacks self-confidence is likely to closely mimic the behavior of an eminent professional rather than develop his or her own style. 2\. Retention. The individual must be able to retain (remember) what he/she has paid attention to. What is seen and heard is stored in memory. Memory is maintained either through practice of the actual behavior or through mental rehearsal. Once it is in the memory, one can \"bring up\" the image or event later, so that it can be reproduced with one\'s own behavior. 3\. Reproduction. You have to translate the images or descriptions into actual behavior. However, one must have to have the ability to reproduce the behavior in the first place. For example, I can watch Olympic ice skaters all day long but not reproduce their jumps if I cannot ice skate in the first place. But if I could skate, my performance would improve if I watched skaters better than me. Types of Thinking 1\. Convergent thinking or reflective thinking will eventually lead or converge to a single answer. 2\. Divergent thinking or creative problem solving - start at one point and will come up with many different possibilities or answers to the problem. (Ex. Brainstorming, keeping a journal, free-writing, or mind/subject-mapping). Creative problem solving is generated through application of divergent thinking wherein innovative ideas come up. PROBLEM-SOLVING Problem-solving refers to the application of past experi-ences, available information, and learned methods to reach a solution. According to Wickelgren (1979), for every problem, we can identify givens, operations, and the goal. Facts, word concepts, and procedures can be used to try to reach the goal. The goal is the solution to the problem, which in turn becomes part of one\'s body of knowledge. Problem-solving involves operations on the givens to reach a goal. Almost always, the problem solver is faced with the dilemma of choosing one set of operations from the vast number that is available. It is impractical to test each possible operation in the hope it will lead to the goal. We must engage in intelligent problem-solving methods. Wickelgren suggested four ways to reduce the number of possible operations used to reach a goal. 1\. Recognize that certain operations ations are equivalent and fall into the same class. Once an operation in the same class fails, you can drop the entire class on the ground that all will lead to failure. 2\. Through a series of actions with choices, you know how to proceed further. Assess each choice in terms of how likely it will bring you closer to your goal. Make the most likely choice and continue to the next choice point. 3\. You can work backward. The search for solutions begins at the goal, working backward toward the givens. 4\. By setting sub-goals, you can break the problem into smaller, more manageable pieces, each of which is easier to solve than the problem as a whole Methods Used in Problem-Solving 1\. Trial and Error-trying all the best possible ways to resolve the problem until the one that works best is found. 2\. Algorithm specific step-by-step procedures for solving the problem 3\. Heuristic or Rule of Thumb-simple or general strategies to solve a problem based on prior experiences 4\. Insight-sudden \"Aha!\" way of solving the problem. Factors Affecting Problem-Solving Problem-solving is susceptible to many influences other than simply the problem. These include anxiety, anger, and frustration resulting from the problem-solving process itself or from other sources. If these emotions are present to any noticeable extent, these may interfere with finding a solution to a problem. Attention sparalso limits the ability to solve problems. It restricts the capacity to work with several problem-solving operations at the same time. Lindsay and Norman (1977) suggest planning a strategy ahead of time to keep the problem to a workable size. External aids and long-term memory aids can be used. External aids, like pens and pencils, enable us to record each step in the pro- cess, thereby overcoming the problem imposed by memory loss. Long-term memory aids provide ways of structuring ASSOCIATIVE THINKING Associative thinking refers to forms of thought, in- cluding day-dreaming and dreaming, not contained in problem-solving operations. They were non-directed and without goals. Daydreaming allows one to momentarily escape from the demands of the real world. Daydreaming and fantasies have both positive and negative consequences. Dreams Dreams reshape and recreate materials into new and often illogical forms, and can be a source of creative ideas. A dream may reflect the desire of the dreamer\'s unconscious wishes, needs, and conflicts. Psychoanalytic View. Freud believed dreams provide an important means of probing unconscious impulses and wishes that lie outside the realm of conscious experiences. However, there is no scientific evidence of Freud\'s general assertions about dreams. Alternative views suggest that dreams are linked to forgetting and help erase unneeded or unwanted information from long-term memory. Physiological View. Habson\'s (1988) studies state that dreams are simply subjective experiences of what is essen- tially random natural activity in the brain. Dreams merely represent efforts by our cognitive systems to make sense out of this activity. They reflect memories and knowledge structures that underlie them. Dreams seem to reflect the ef- forts of the sleeping brain to make sense out of input that is actually without intrinsic meaning. There is little support for the view that they represent messages from the unconscious. Altered State of Consciousness Altered state of consciousness (ASC) is broadly defined as a mental state caused by physiological or pharmacological Cup FUNCTIEINOL OF MENTAL PROCESSES\\ intervention which is substantially different from when the individual is in a normally alert, awake state of mind. Examples are hypnosis, meditation, and drug-induced ex- periences that affect perception and other human functions, from respiration to motor coordination to cognition and memory According to Ludwig (1969), most ASCs demonstrate one or more of the following general characteristics: impaired cognitive functions and reality testing, distorted sense of time loss of self-control; change in emotional display; change of body image; perceptual distortions such as hallucinations and increased visual imagery; change in the significance given to the experience; sense of having experienced something that cannot be verbalized or communicated; feelings of rebirth; and hyper-suggestibility. Ludwig also listed three socially accepted functions of ASC: healing, gaining new knowledge, and outlet for a group ritual. Major Kinds of ASCs A. SENSORY DEPRIVATION. Results in disruption of thought processes, irritability, and occasional hallucina- tion. Hearing, touch, taste, and sensitivity to pain become more acute, while other sensory capacities are unaffected or reduced. B. SLEEP. Losing awareness and failing to respond to a stimulus that otherwise produces a response in the awake state. Often involves a falling sensation, followed by a quick jolt back to consciousness, especially if the sleeper is nervous. Stages of Sleep 1\. Stage one-small, irregular electroencephalogram (EEG) waves; drifting into a high sleep; can readily be awakened 2\. Stage two very rapid bursts in EEG waves (known as sleep spindles). If someone sneezed next door, the sleeper would likely not hear it. Box 6. DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY CLARK HULL\'S DRIVE THEORY Clark Hull was impressed with Pavlov\'s work on conditioned reflex, which he considered a simple form of learning on which more complex kinds of learning could be derived. Hull was also indebted to Thorndike\'s concept of reinforcement or reward as one of the primary variables of learning. Hull postulated that anything that satisfied needs or reduced drives could be considered a reinforcer. He was also influenced by the Skinner Reinforcement Theory. Although their theories differ in many respects, they both agreed that without reinforcement, learning would not occur. KURT LEWIN\'S FIELD THEORY Levin directed his attention to problems of social psychology during his later years. He developed the concept of group dynamics. He stressed that the person and the life space constituted the psychological field; while the group and Its environment formed the social field. Group behavior becomes a function of the total situation. The group is characterized by the dynamic Interdependence of its members. The group is subject to cohesive and disruptive forces. The group constitutes a field of forces, and individuals were attracted or repelled depending on the kind of valences existing in the group. When the relation between members were attractive, cohesive forces were operating, as when the group is in a position to satisfy the needs of its members. The concept of group dynamics has led several avenues of research. During the WWII, Levin conducted a number of experiments that attempted to alter group decision-making. Robert W. Lundin. Theories & Systems of Psychology 5e, Mass.: D.C. Heath and Co., 2011. or need alleviation, but drive stimulus reduction, a craving that is relieved. Reinforcement is not a quantitative aspect of reinforcement, but the frequency of occurrence of rein- forcement. Continuous and repetitious influences determine habit strength. Drives Drives are often called learned motives. Drives help explain why we eat, sleep, avoid pain, engage in sex, and so on. Hull (1943) argued that drive is the outcome of an ani- mal\'s state of biological need. Drives make the animal more active, thus increasing the likelihood that it would perform a drive-reducing response. Hull identified two types of drive: the primary drives, which are fundamental drives arising from needs built into one\'s psychological systems (motivators of action); and the secondary drives, which are learned through association with primary drives and their reduction. Motivation is what gives direction to behavior by arousing, containing, and directing it toward the attainment of the goal. D. CONTIGUITY THEORY Edwin Ray Guthrie (1886-1959) Guthrie (1952) proposed the Law of Contiguity that states, \"a combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its resurgence tend to be followed by that movement.\" All learning is based on a stimulus-response association; movements are small stimulus-response combi- nations, and the combination of these movements make up an act. A learned behavior is a series of movements. However, it takes time for the movements to develop into an act. Learning is incremental. Behavior involves repetition of movements; what are learned are movements, not behaviors. ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES Modular Approach This learning principle is based on several assumptions about how people learn, primarily those involving stimulus and response. A stimulus is any event perceived by human sense receptors. It could be a visual event, a taste, smell, sound, touch or a combination of these senses. A response is any event or process elicited by a stimulus. Some responses are purely reflexive in nature. For instance, when we ac- cidentally touch hot water, we perceive a stimulus (pain), so we automatically respond by removing our hand. Other responses develop as a function of learning. This learning principle is based on the assumption that learning involves formation of associative bonds between stimulus formation and response event. These bonds are formed as a function of pairing both the stimulus and the response event in time. For instance, we answer \"35,\" in response to \"what is 7 x 5?\" because we have heard both events many times. The pairing of two events at one time is called contiquity, meaning, two events are continuous if they occur together. REVIEW 1\. Identify the type of educational or life situation where associative learning principles are most use- ful. 2\. Specify the basic assumptions underlying associative learning principles. 3\. State each of the processes upon which the associa- tive learning principle is based. PRINCIPLE I This is an accessory principle describing a physiological substratum for the law of effect. It states the circumstances under which a learner tends to be satisfied or annoyed, to welcome or to reject. The psychological meaning of Thorn- dike\'s law of readiness becomes clearer when he used the term \"action tendency\" rather than \"conduction unit.\" When an \"action tendency\" is aroused through preparatory adjust- ments, sets, attitudes, and the like, fulfillment of the tendency in action is satisfying, and non-fulfillment is annoying. Readiness means a preparation for action. Thorndike describes a child seeing an attractive object from a distance, getting ready to approach, seize, and manipulate it. \"Reading readiness\" is a kind of readiness related to education. This refers to a child reaching a maturity level appropriate to the beginning of reading. 1\. Who was the principal founder of the Associative Learning Principle? 2\. What principle of learning is an accessory to the \"law of effect\"? 3\. Explain \"reading readiness\" of a child. PRINCIPLE II New learning should be tied to what the individual already knows (association). According to this principle, a connection is more easily learned if the response belongs to the situation, and an after effect does better if it belongs to the connection it strengthens. For example, a series of phrases like, \"Juan is a mason, Pedro is a carpenter,\" is easily remembered because the subject and predicate are similar to each other. Effects of Imitation 1\. Modeling effect acquisition of a new response as a result of seeing a model emit that response. Children whose playmates are aggressive tend to also be aggressive. Non-aggressive responses can also be transmitted through imitation or modeling. 2\. Inhibitory effect- suppression of a deviant behav- ior as a result of seeing a model being punished for engaging in such behavior. 3\. Disinhibitory effect- engaging in a deviant behav- ior as a result of seeing a model either punished or rewarded for the same behavior. 4\. Eliciting effect-emission of responses that do not precisely match those of the model, but are related to the model\'s response and belong to the same class of behavior. MEASURING LEARNING PERFORMANCE Learning cannot be measured or seen directly. What can be observed and measured is behavior. When behavior changes as a result of experience, we infer that learning has taken place. Even when the method of observation is intro- spective, we do not see learning itself, only the result of it. Criteria of Learning The following types of behavioral changes are the most commonly used criteria of learning. a\. Accuracy of response - when a person learning new skills makes many errors in the first attempt, but with continued practice, reduces the number of errors. b\. Speed of response - a decrease in the amount of time required to perform a task correctly or an increase in the number of work units done in a given amount of time. c\. Strength of response the probability of desired responses increases as the reward response increase. d\. Probability of response - the probability of desired responses increases as the learner makes more cor- rect responses rather than a unrelated ones. e\. Effort in response a decrease in energy output while performing the task. Marijuana, if used moderately, does not appear to cause mental and physical deterioration, or result in compulsive use. Its effects include euphoria, increased sense of humor, increased visual imagery, and distorted sense of time. Amphetamines produce feelings of optimism and boundless energy. They can become addicting and can even- tually lead to psychosis. Barbiturates are depressants. Like alcohol, they have the potential to create physical and psychological dependence. Both affect perception of time, self-perception, and memory. Heroin is a potent drug that can create physical and psychological dependence when used for a long period of time. Users become tolerant to the substance, such that larger doses are needed to satisfy craving. Cocaine is a stimulant. Its effects are similar to those of amphetamines. Among the drugs mentioned, cocaine has the greatest potential for psychological dependence. Hallucinogens include LSD, mescaline, peyote, and psilocybin. They have a low dependency rate and rarely cause psychosis. They have pronounced effects on visual and auditory perception. The most commonly used hallucigen in the Philippines is shabu, the so-called poor man\'s cocaine. The effects of these drugs are unpredictable; there is no way of determin- ing in advance whether the result is pleasant or unpleasant sensations. Consciousness-Altering Drugs Drug classification is based on their psychological ef- fects, not on chemical nature. Factors affecting the efficiency of drugs are: a\) Expectations. If users expect a drug to produce a certain effect, such effect is more likely to occur than when it is not anticipated. b\) Users physical state. E.g., health condition, fatigue, time, and individual differences c\) Previous experiences d\) Mixture with other drugs The function of memory is retention, holding on to events and information from the past. Retention can be mea- sured through recall, recognition, and savings. Recall involves the reproduction or repetition of learned materials. Serial recall is when materials are recalled in a specific order, most often in the order in which they were learned. Free recall is when pieces of information are recalled in any order. Recognition is when a person identifies learned materials when presented with these. An example is the multiple-choice test, where several choices are presented and one is identified as the correct answer. Savings represents the difference between the number of trials needed to learn something and the number needed to relearn it. In 1969, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a model of hu- man memory which posited three memory levels: sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. These three levels are like stages in a refining system where raw materials pass. At each level, the material is re- worked and either discarded or stored. The sensory registerreceives sensory impressions from the external world and may be likened to a \"reception room\" (of memory). It has a huge capacity, but its retention time is very brief and only a portion of what enters goes to the next level of short-term memory. Short-term memory is temporary, active, and conscious. It is commonly called attention span. It is more selective and slightly more permanent than the sensory register, although less materials are held in this level. Materials in short-term memory will disappear in 10 to 20 seconds if they are not repeated or practiced. Short-term memory can hold only around seven items at a time. Through the process of chunk- ing information, it is organized into meaningful urtits. A verbally coded item can be held indefinitely in short-term memory if it is repeated over and over again, Reinforcement There are two different views as to why some psy- chologists regard reinforcement as a necessary principle or operating procedure. Guthrie assumed that learning depends on the action an organism must do if it is to learn. But the \"doing\" must be in relation to some stimulus situation. Once the organism has performed the required response, the original stimuli must be removed. One way of getting rid of the original stimuli is to present the learner with a reward, which will now capture his or her attention. Here, rewards are used as distractors. Psychologists who believe that rewards have something to do with learning assume that motivation is important to the learner. A reward must be something desirable; without the desire, there can be no reward. Psychologists who find no real use for rewards and believe that motivation is basic to learning must see to it that motivation is indeed present and introduce reward objects or stimuli to maintain the motivation or activate it. Partial Reinforcement According to Skinner, behavior can be controlled if the teacher doles out reinforcers according to a plan. The teacher should reinforce learners at the early stages of acquiring the desired behavior. Once the behavior is fairly well established, the teacher can space out the reinforcements in a way that these occur often enough but without regularity. The teacher should control the schedule. It is not necessary to give rewards for every performance of a desired response. The learner must be observed to be remember. These types of interference are called proactive and retroactive inhibition a\. Proactive inhibition occurs when earlier learning gets in the way of later learning. The more similarity there is between the old and the new learning, the more interference there will be. Example, learning Spanish and Chabacano b\. Retroactive inhibition is the result of later learning getting in the way of earlier learning. In part, the new material interferes with the process of recalling previously stored information because it causes the use of wrong sets of cues. It appears that learning every material can also make us unlearn some earlier materials. For example, people who recite a long list of nonsense syllables may remember more of the syl- lables at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end of the list (recency effect) than those in the middle. Memory of meaningful material is less susceptible to forgetting than memory of isolated facts. We may forget the exact wording of information, büt we frequently continue to remember the meaning. In the process of recollection, meanings are sometimes changed to conform to one\'s own experiences and attitudes. Motivated forgetting refers to the inability to remem- ber what we do not want to remember. Repression is one method of protecting ourselves from remembering painful memories. Extreme repression can result in hysterical ama nesia. For example, a man wakes up in a strange city unable to remember his name or where he came from, and yet is perfectly capable of reciting the alphabet or frying an egg. In hysterical amnesia, there is no apparent organic reason for memory failure. Usually, a frightening or unacceptable episode in the person\'s life makes them totally repress all personal memories similar to that one incident. Organic amnesia is memory loss caused by physi- ological factors, like injury, disease, alcoholism, nutritional timeat will are eredeficiency, or brain damage. This may be permanent or tem- porary, depending on the nature and extent of the damage. The reason for such memory failure is not exactly known, except that some vital processing center in the brain fails to function, making retrieval impossible. Psychologists suggest several methods to improve reten- tion and facilitate learning. a\) Increase study time to relate, compare, and contrast new materials with what you already know. b\) Distribution of practice. For most kinds of materi- als, spaced learning is more efficient than massed learning. c\) Speed reading. Fast reading speed may lead to poorer comprehension and retention. However, if the material is needed for a short period of time only, speed reading can be useful. d\) Arousal, meaning being very anxious while study- ing, will increase recall of materials, although it will not increase recognition. e\) The effect of sleep. We are apt to retain materials if we go to sleep after learning these because there are no intervening activities that interfere with retention. f\) Knowledge of results. If we are informed of our progress by being told how well or how poorly we are doing or by seeing the result directly, we can cor- rect our errors. This is the principle of programmed learning. The learner receives immediate feedback about how well he or she is doing. Feedback also provides reinforcement. g\) Whole versus part learning, Whole learning is usu- ally more efficient than part learning PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION Programmed instruction was invented by Skinner in the 1950s. The materials to be learned are organized into units or frames so that the learner can go through it step by step. Each frame is composed of a statement or a question and may be Action Thorndike, Hull, and Skinner based their ideas on the proposition that, without performance there is no learning. Research studies that establish the necessity of action in learning: 1\. Learning and sleep. Entrepreneurs have advertised and sold recordings of lessons or languages, leading people to believe that listening to these while sleeping will fill up their heads with knowledge. Newspapers like to feature stories of students who claim success with this method but, to date, there has been no satisfactory evidence that anyone learned anything in this manner. Controlled experiments (Simon and Evans 1955) showed that no learning takes place during sleep periods. 2\. Incidental learning. In an experiment, a subject (S1) was asked to read aloud, over and over again, a material that another subject (S2) was to learn until S2 met some criterion. At that point, the experimenter asked 52 to recite the material. GI (6 са 2 NAD NOTES: Cap MEASURING LEARNING PERFORMANCE 10% Typically, this task is quite impossible. Because there was no active participation as a learner, nothing was learned. 3\. Activity in terms of tension. In a study, learners were asked to memorize a material while squeezing hand grip dynamometers with a certain amount of pressure or tension. They learned better when they were \"active,\" than when they were not so occupied. 4\. Learning without overt action. Teachers are some- times told that the discussion method of teaching is more effective than the lecture method. However, some matters are learned better or more effectively by ane method or the other, depending on the material. 5\. Recitation as an active form of learning. A study on reviewing for examinations concluded that learning is more efficient if students recite prospective answers, than if they just read and reread pertinent materials. Recitation also benefits learners, as they are actually practicing what is to be performed later, resulting in much time saving during examinations. 6\. Optimal stimulation. Leuba and Hebb argued that there may be a need for stimulation, tension, and excite ment to provoke learning. At some point between sleep and excitement, there may be an \"optimum\" level of tension or stimulation for effective learning. Such level varies with the subject and the material being learned. Some students study only when there is absolute silence in the surrounding area, while others insist on blaring radios as a necessary accom- paniment when studying. While we recognize that activity is helpful for some kinds of learning, it is not a universal condition for learning. Practical Applications of Active Learning 1\. The degree of activity required for learning depends on the kind of learning involved. Overt muscular exertion is required for learning physical skills. You do not learn to swim by reading about it. Other kinds of learning require only internal emotional responses. Multiple Intelligence 1\. Linguistic intelligence (word smart) is capacity to use language and appreciate complex meaning. This type of intelligence is good for writing, reading and narrating stories. 2\. Logic mathematical (number/reasoning smart)- the ability to calculate, quantity and carry numerical operations. EX. Engineers 3\. Spatial Intelligence (picture smart) - ability to think in three dimensions. This includes image manipula- tion, graphic and artistic skills. Ex. Pilots, sculptors, architects 4\. Musical Intelligence - the ability creates reproduce and reflects on music. Ex. Composers, vocalists, conductors 5\. Bodily Kinesthetic-capacity to use variety of skills. Ex. Athletes, dancers and surgeons 6\. Interpersonal (people smart) sensitive to the moods and temperament of others. Ex. Teachers, actors, and politicians 7\. Intrapersonal (self-smart), to understand oneself and one\'s feelings. Ex. Philosophers & spiritual leaders 8\. Naturalistic (nature smart) - ability to discriminate living things. Ex. Farmers, hunters, and botanists 9\. Existential Intelligence ability to understand questions about human existence, life meaning of existence and death. Ex. Theologians, philosophers, cosmologists Extremes of Intelligence 1\. The Gifted highest point are gifted whose IQ is 130 or higher only 1 percent of given population fall in this category: They have highly developed mental abilities not only on general but also specific mental abilities; have high creative ability, and are highly motivated and strongly dedicated. They need special educational opportunities as are highly creative and easily gets bored in regular classes. They should be given extracurricular programs to provide their needed intellectual stimulation. A quality related to genius is creativity. Based on research, creativity is moderately cor- related with intelligence. (Weslen Drew, 2002), 2\. Mental Retardation or Feeblemindedness-3 to 5% of population is classified as mentally deficient or feeble- minded. (See Appendix A. Myths VS Facts.) Types of Mental Retardation or Cognitive Delay 1\. Mild 50-70 IQ: Educable Type - can attain adequate vocational achievement, employment is possible that does not require concept skills. 2\. Moderate 35-50 IQ: Trainable Type-can do simple activities, can follow simple direction, can reach elementary level 3\. Severe 20-35 IQ: Custodian Type - can do repetitive activities and needs closer supervision throughout life. 4\. Profound 20 IQ Needs nursing care incapable of self maintenance, totally dependent in all aspects daily needs. Lewis Terman (1925) conducted a longitudinal study over 1,000 California children. The study concludes that gifted people have an average or above average adjustment, better marital success and have better vocational success than the general population. A quality related to giftedness is creativity or the abil- ity to innovate or to introduce something new. Examples of gifted people include Einstein, Darwin, and Mozart. A controversial issue regarding intelligence is as to what degree is it înnate or hereditary (nature) Current research on twins, family and adoption research studies conclude that heredity and environment (external factors) equally contrib- ute to heritability and individual differences. at a very slow frequency of about two per second. Breathing is substantially slow, and muscles are completely relaxed. 4\. Stage four- Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep be- gins. The other stages of sleep are referred to as non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. What do we gain from the hours we spend asleep? According to the Recuperative Theory, sleep provides the rest required to recover from the wear and tear of the pre- vious day\'s activities. Sleep is related to basic Circadian (from the Latin word meaning \"about a day\") rhythms, the regular shifts in the fluctuation of bodily processes, and conscious- ness. Many of these fluctuations occur over a single day. The studies of Moore-Ede Sulzman and Fuller (1982) state that melatonin hormones are abundant in early morn ing but drop sharply as the time for waking approaches. This cyclic fluctuation in bodily functions is reflected in the performance of many tasks. C. HYPNOSIS Studies indicate that hypnosis is a profound ASC in which a powerful hypnotist can induce susceptible persons to carry out suggestions in an automatic manner (Wilson, Greene, and Loftus, 1986). Traits related to hypnotic susceptibility (Lynn, Rhue, and Weekes, 1986): a\. Persons who tend to have frequent vivid fantasies or who are simply high in visual imagery; b\. Persons who are dependent on others and are ori- ented toward seeking direction and reinforcement; c\. Persons with a high degree of expectancy that they can be influenced (Council, Kirsch, and Hafner, 1986). Hypnotizability may be a function of faith or a high degree of belief that it is effective. D. MEDITATION. This is a technique that attempts to focus attention and avoid worried thoughts (Shapiro, 1984). Meditation combines a refocusing of attention with relaxation. It involves repetitive activities such as slow breathing and recharging. It also tries to reverse the automa- tization of t thoughts through contemplation and awareness of stimuli not normally do notice, like the rhythmic sounds of our breathing and heart. The goal of mediation is to achieve deep relaxation. Meditation is often described as a mystical experience/ resulting from a combination of these elements: a) feeling of oneness; b) sense of truth; c) inability to express experience in mere words; and d) vividness and clarity of sensations and perceptions. There are many forms of meditation, like Zen, yoga, Sufi, Christian, and transcendental meditation (TM). Each uses slightly different techniques. Zen and yoga concentrate on respiration. The Sufi discipline involves both frenzied dancing and the use of mantra in TM. Meditation often results in a sense of unity between the individual and their surroundings. The person may experi ence increased sensory awareness, euphoria, strong emotion. and a sense of timelessness and expanded awareness. Un- like hypnosis, meditation involves an identifiable cluster of physiological changes. Some of these changes, such as the predomination of alpha waves, have been documented. Drug-Induced Experiences There is a long history of using drugs to alter conscious- ness. The effect of drugs on consciousness depends on the set (the person\'s state of mind at the time the drug is taken) and the setting (the physical, social, and ermotional atmosphere when the drug is taken). Alcohol is the most commonly used drug. It is a depres sant and can lessen a person\'sinhibitions. It has a temporary stimulating effect and impairs some kinds of perception. Subsidiary Principles of Learning There are subsidiary principles of learning which may help comprehend the complications of the learning experi ence. These are: 1\. Spaced vs. massed learning Most learning experiences are sporadic. The stimuli to which we learn to respond in specific ways come upon us unpredictably or at irregular intervals. Spaced learning, or learning over a distributed period of time, is a more efficient way of studying than learning in a single massed session. In a massed session, the learner gets tired, loses motivation, gets confused about what he or she knows and does not know, and may develop various kinds of inhibitions. Another disadvantage of cramming is that the learner may not retain what he or she wants know very well, and wastes time going over and over it again. In spaced learning, the leaner can rest, has time to find out what needs to be practiced, and may find additional mo tivation. Lessons should be longer than warm-up sessions. Given a series of sessions, the learner can afford to review the lessons and concentrate on lessons which are hard to compre- hend. They should not include so much material that, by the end of the session, the beginning is already forgotten. There is no way of determining how much time to allot between learning sessions, but these should not be spread indefinitely. Spaced learning is favored over mass learning as the more effective method for learning many sensory motor and verbal materials and tasks involving inductive thinking or problem-solving. However, tasks will be handled better if the learner sticks to the job for a relatively longer period of time. 2\. Whole vs. part learning Previously, learning psychology emphasized that learn- ing by the \"whole method was better than the \"part\" or \"part-progressive\" method. The whole method is useful, for example, in memorizing poetry. Here, showing the entire ma- terial is more effective than breaking it into sections or verses. S MEATBALLARING PERFORMANCE 101 At present, rote memory drills are not favored. Most elementary school children rely on learning a bit at a time, adding more as they learn, until they can understand the whole. The part-progressive method involves considerable learning of the first part with progressively less mastery of the end. If sections are learned separately, the end of one section are associated with the beginning of the next. Learners will be able to go through any part of the section if they start on it well. If the start is learned thoroughly, there is no trouble in using the part method. With long assignments, like studying the Bible, the whole method is not practical. But with materials of a rea- sonable length, the whole method can be effective. 3\. Active vs. passive learning In most learning situations, students who wants to learn more, sit up straight, attend to the learning sessions, and ac- tively participate learn more rapidly than students who do not know what they are learning, do not care to learn, have no intention of remembering the lesson, and sit in a sloppy way. Experiments conclude that, unless the subject is fully awake, he or she learns nothing. The study of Gates, Wier, and Stevenson (1959) dem- onstrated that students learned biographical materials more when they spent only 20% of the time reading and 80% recit- ing the material. For rote memory of nonsense syllables, the best distribution time was 20% reading and 80% recitation. There is evidence that vocalization assists learning even when the tasks are not primarily verbal in nature. For example, children learn visual discrimination tasks more rapidly if they \"talk to themselves,\" and adults learn a task more rapidly if told ahead of time what the plan is. 4\. Meaningful vs. rote learning Rote learning is trying to memorize an unrelated set of series of responses that have no previous connection in a dif- ficult work. Ordinarily, verbal materials arranged in sentence