Critical Thinking PDF

# **Critical thinking** is smart thinking > not blindly accept arguments and conclusions - examines assumptions, assesses the source, uncovers hidden values, weighs evidence, and assesses conclusions > **findings of critical thinking** - losses of brain tissue = long term effects - newborns= r...

# **Critical thinking** is smart thinking > not blindly accept arguments and conclusions - examines assumptions, assesses the source, uncovers hidden values, weighs evidence, and assesses conclusions > **findings of critical thinking** - losses of brain tissue = long term effects - newborns= recognize mother odor - brain damage = new skills (unaware) - electric shock=heal depression popular beliefs - not true - sleepwalkers don’t act out their dreams - past experiences not word for word - suffer from high self-esteem (bad) - opposites do not attract  # Psychology **(heading: Psychology science’s birth and development)** early pioneers, psychology was defined as “the science of mental life” — inner sensations, images, thoughts, and emotions then: divided into branches > **structuralism** (by Wundt) that focused on the structure of the human mind **functionalism (**by James and influenced by Darwin) that focused on how the mind functions > two major forces: - **behaviorism:** can observe and record people’s behavior as they are conditioned - **psychoanalytic psychology:** the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior > **cognitive psychology** the study of mental processes (such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems) **cognitive neuroscience** the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with mental activity (including perception thinking, memory, and language) > new definition (builded on past definitions): > **psychology** the science of behavior and mental processes > - **Behavior** is anything a human or nonhuman animal does — any action we can observe and record (yelling, smiling, blinking, sweating, talking) - **Mental processes** are our internal, subjective experiences ( sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings) **(headline: today’s psychology)** key word in today’s psychology is science, less a set of findings than a way of asking and answering questions   other fields: psychology departments, medical schools, law schools, business schools, and theological seminaries - **biological psychologists** exploring the links between brain and mind. developmental psychologists studying our changing abilities from womb to tomb - **cognitive psychologists** experimenting with how we perceive, think, and solve problems. - **personality psychologists** investigating our persistent traits. - **social psychologists** exploring how we view and affect one another. - **health psychologists** investigating the psychological, biological, and behavioral factors that promote or impair our health - **industrial-organizational psychologists** studying and advising on workplace-related behaviors and system and product designs “knowledge has modified attitudes, and, through them, behavior.” - learning about psychological findings, view people differently (psychological disorders not failure, women not inferior to men, children not ignorant beasts to be tamed # The biopsychosocial approach > **biopsychosocial approach** that integrates different but complementary views from biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints > - gender is not the same as sex. Gender= the behavioral characteristics that people associate with boy, girl, man, or woman in a specific culture. Sex = biologically influenced characteristics, which people inherit thanks to their genes many individuals’ gender identity differs from their sex > **culture** the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and handed down from one generation to the next > group’s culturally influenced, differs from individual, because of their personal abilities and learning ( both have impact) gender differences: what we dream, in how we express and detect emotion, and in our risk for alcohol use disorder, eating disorders, and depression gender similarities: learn to walk at about the same age. We experience the same sensations of light and sound. We remember vivid emotional events and forget everyday details. We feel the same pangs of hunger, desire, and fear **Nature nurture issue** > **nature–nurture issue** the age-old controversy over the relative influence of genes and experience in the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s psychological science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture > nurture works on what nature provides - epigenetics — how experience in turn influences genetic expression - brain plasticity—an enormous ability to learn and adapt psychological event — every thought, every emotion — is also a biological event. Thus, depression can be both a brain disorder and a thought disorder # Dual Processing > **dual processing** the principle that our mind processes information at the same time on separate conscious and unconscious tracks > Ex. Vision: carbon monoxide —> brain damage left her unable to consciously perceive objects. Yet she acted as if she could see them. Vision is a two-track system: visual perception track enables us to think about the world — to recognize things and to plan future actions. Our visual action track guides our moment-to moment actions Our thinking, memory, and attitudes also operate on two levels — conscious and unconscious # Clinical Psychology > **counseling psychology** a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or relationships) and in achieving greater well-being **clinical psychology** a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders **psychiatry** a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy > > **community psychology** a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions (such as schools and neighborhoods) affect individuals and groups > # Positive Psychology human flourishing, on understanding and developing the emotions and traits that help us to thrive = positive Psychology they believe happiness is a by-product of a pleasant, engaged, and meaningful life —> building a “good life” that engages our skills, and a “meaningful life” explore: - **positive emotions,** such as satisfaction with the past, happiness with the present, and optimism about the future - **positive character traits**, such as creativity, courage, compassion, integrity, self-control, leadership, wisdom, and spirituality. Current research examines the roots and fruits of such qualities, sometimes by studying the lives of individuals who offer striking examples - **positive institutions**, such as healthy families, supportive neighborhoods, effective schools, and socially responsible media > **positive psychology** the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive > # The limits of common sense **hindsight bias** Whether your gut tells you Yes or No, you need evidence - our gut feelings may steer us down the wrong path > **hindsight bias** the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) > —> look at book for examples **overconfidence** humans also tend to be overconfident —> look at book for examples **Perceiving Order in Random Events** built-in eagerness to make sense of our world For most people, a random, unpredictable world is uncomfortable the world is a stress-buster, Making sense of our world helps us stay calm and get on with daily living --- We trust our gut feelings more than we should. Our commonsense thinking is flawed by three powerful tendencies — hindsight bias, overconfidence, and perceiving patterns in random events. But scientific thinking can help us sift reality from illusion # **Psychological science in a post-truth world** > **Definition of Post-Truth**: emotions and personal beliefs often override objective facts > —> Encouragement of critical thinking and a scientific mindset to better understand reality # The scientific method > **theory** an explanation using principles that organize observations and predict behaviors or events > > **hypothesis** a testable prediction, often implied by a theory >  measurable operational definitions : Sleep deprived, for example, may be defined as “2 or more hours less” than the person’s natural sleep - exact descriptions will allow anyone to replicate (repeat) the research. Other people can then re- create the study with different participants and in different situations. If they get similar results, we can be more confident that the findings are reliable > **operational definition** a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. **replication** repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced > Preregistration benefits science by encouraging openness and transparency - a good theory : organizes, predictions, replications - test theories: descriptive, correlational, experimental # Description **The case study** > **case study** a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles > - suggest directions for further study - individual cases may also mislead us: atypical (unlike the larger population) —> Viewing such cases as general truths can lead to false conclusions, can always find an exception --- But just because something is true of one of us, we should not assume it is true of all of us **Naturalistic Observation** > **naturalistic observation** a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to change or control the situation > has been very difficult to track, with big data nowadays a lot easier  Like the case study method, naturalistic observation does not explain behavior. It describes it. Nevertheless, descriptions can be revealing: The starting point of any science is description. **The survey** > **survey** a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of that group. > - **wording effects**: answers depend on how you word the question, some words can trigger positive or negative reactions, ex. “gun safety” vs “gun control” laws > **population** all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.) > > **random sample** a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion > —> not volunteers, because not random, but assign every person (student) a number and pick one - try involve as many people as possible # Correlation that one trait or behavior tends to happen together with another > **correlation** a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either one predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from −1.00 to +1.00, with 0 indicating no relationship > the correlation coefficient (how closely two things vary together, and thus how well either one predicts the other): - **A positive correlation** (above 0 to +1.00): direct relationship, both values increase/decrease. Ex. weight and height - **A negative correlation** (below 0 to −1.00): inverse relationship, one thing increases the other one decreases, ex. hours watching videos, grades. (-1.00 like seesaw) - A coefficient near zero is a weak correlation, indicating little or no relationship explain only parts, indicate a relationship: Correlations point us toward predictions, but usually imperfect ones - some lead astray. Just because two things vary together doesn’t mean they cause each other --- A correlation coefficient helps us see the world more clearly by revealing the extent to which two things relate. Just remember that revealing relationships does not mean explaining the  # Experimental Methods > **experiment** a method in which researchers vary one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, researchers aim to control other factors. > researchers can focus on the possible effects of one or more factors: - manipulating the factors of interest - holding constant - (“controlling”) other factors > **random assignment** assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing any preexisting differences between the groups. **experimental group** in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. **control group** in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; the control group serves as a comparison with the experimental group for judging the effect of the treatment > --- The point to remember: Unlike correlational studies, which uncover naturally occurring relationships, an experiment manipulates (varies) a factor to determine its effect # The Double-Blind Procedure: Eliminating Bias Adults, however, do have expectations, baby's don’t a double-blind procedure — neither those taking part in the study nor those collecting the data know which group is receiving the treatment random assignment groups: people who take part in these studies are blind (uninformed) about which treatment, if any, they are receiving > **placebo** an inactive substance or condition that is sometimes given to those in a control group in place of the treatment given to the experimental group > > The **nocebo effect**, also known as the nocebo response, happens when a person's negative expectations of treatment lead to negative side effects. > - check a treatment’s actual effects apart from the participants’ belief in its healing powers - Just thinking you are getting a treatment can boost your spirits, relax your body, and relieve your symptoms ex: placebo effect is well documented in reducing pain, depression, anxiety, and, in schizophrenia, sound-based hallucinations > **double-blind procedure** in an experiment, a procedure in which both the participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about who has received the treatment or a placebo. **placebo effect** results caused by expectations alone. > # Variables > **independent variable** in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied **confounding variable** in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results > examine the effect of one or more independent variables on some behavior or mental process that can be measured > **dependent variable** in an experiment, the factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated > **independent- manipulated, dependent-measuring (she wants us to use that)** (Operational definitions answer the “What do you mean?” question with a level of precision that enables others to replicate (repeat) the study) **REVIEWING TERMS** Let’s review these terms using the British breast-milk experiment. A variable is anything that can vary (infant nutrition, intelligence). Experiments aim to manipulate an independent variable (type of milk), measure a dependent variable (later intelligence test score), and control confounding variables. An experiment has at least two different groups: an experimental group (infants who received breast milk) and a comparison or control group (infants who did not receive breast milk). Random assignment works to control all other (confounding) variables by equating the groups before any manipulation begins. In this way, an experiment tests the effect of at least one independent variable (what we manipulate) on at least one dependent variable (the outcome we measure).  # Choosing a research design  - consider how much money and time are available, ethical issues, and other limitations ex. wouldn’t be ethical for a researcher studying child development to use the experimental method and randomly assign children to loving versus punishing homes - decide how to measure the behavior or mental process being studied - consider confounding variables — factors other than those being studied that may affect their interpretation of results # Predicting everyday behavior - experiment’s purpose is not to re-create the exact behaviors of everyday life, but to test theoretical principles The point to remember: Psychological science focuses less on specific behaviors than on revealing general principles that help explain many behaviors # Psychology’s Research Ethics **Studying and protecting animals** - want to understand how different species learn, think, and behave —> study animals to learn about people - Animals themselves benefited from animal research: handling and stroking methods to reduce stress (of dogs that come to shelter) **Studying and protecting humans** - Some experiments won’t work if participants know everything beforehand - researchers do temporarily stress or deceive people (people want to be helpful and confirm researchers claim) - psychology’s experiments are mild compared with the stress and humiliation often inflicted in reality TV “experiments.” The APA and Britain’s BPS ethics codes urge researchers to - obtain the potential participants’ informed consent to take part. - protect participants from out-of-the-ordinary harm and discomfort. - keep information about individual participants confidential - fully debrief participants (explain the research afterward, including any temporary deception) > **informed consent** giving people enough information about a study to enable them to decide whether they wish to participate. **debriefing** after an experiment ends, explaining to participants the study’s purpose and any deceptions researchers used > **values in psychology** - Sometimes we see what we want or expect to see - the words we use to describe traits and tendencies can reflect our values ( firm or stubborn, careful or picky, discreet or secretive) - worry about psych: that it is becoming dangerously powerful - have the power to deceive, its purpose is to enlighten ( enhance learning, creativity, and compassion) - its goal exploring and promoting human strengths # Use Psychology to Improve Your Life and Become a Better Student - **Think**: Think critically, by examining sources and evidence before accepting arguments and conclusions. - **Consider:** Consider other voices and ideas by being open to diverse perspectives. By engaging with people who differ from you, your world will be enriched. - **Improve**: Use psychology’s evidence-based principles — on relationships, achieving success, handling stress, finding meaning, and much more suggestions: - Manage your time to get a full night’s sleep - Make space for exercise - Set long-term goals, with daily aims. - Have a growth mindset - Prioritize relationships repeated self testing and rehearsal of previously studied material - testing effect, make it reinforcing > **testing effect** enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes called the retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning > > **SQ3R** a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review > Read actively and think critically. Ask your own questions. Take notes. Relate the ideas to your personal experiences and to your own life — review - Distribute your study time: one main sitting - Learn to think critically - Process class information actively - Overlearn: learn even though you think you know everything